The outstanding returns of the IXs that sailed in May to the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico helped offset the diminishing returns of the Type VIIs on the United States East Coast, most of which had carried out special missions. The combined total sinkings of the May boats (including the sailing schooners, trawlers, and the other vessels sunk by gun and mines) was eighty-four ships of 407,000 tons. This was an overall average of 5.25 ships of 25,437 tons per boat per patrol. In return, three U-boats were lost: the IXs U-157 U-157 and and U-158 U-158 and the VII and the VII U-701 U-701.

* Upon the outbreak of the war in 1939, the Upon the outbreak of the war in 1939, the Normandie Normandie, which made her first Atlantic crossing in 1935, was "interned" in New York. After Pearl Harbor, she was "seized" by the United States government for conversion to a troop transport, to be christened Lafayette Lafayette. On February 9, 1942, while undergoing conversion by 2,500 workers of Todd Shipyards, Inc., she caught fire. The thirty-six units of the New York fire department (including three fireboats) that responded to the alarm pumped 839,000 gallons of water into the ship, causing it to capsize at the dock. A prodigious salvage effort ensued, but Normandie Normandie was too far gone. She was sold for scrap in 1946. Sabotage was suspected but never proven. was too far gone. She was sold for scrap in 1946. Sabotage was suspected but never proven.

* Implying that all Axis forces were not only keeping pace with new construction, but also cutting into the basic tonnage by 200,000 to 300,000 tons per month. The estimate of sinkings was very nearly accurate. According to Admiralty figures, in April 1942, Allied merchant-ship losses to all causes were 132 ships for 674,457 tons. Axis submarines (German, Italian, Japanese) accounted for seventy-four ships for 431,664 tons. Implying that all Axis forces were not only keeping pace with new construction, but also cutting into the basic tonnage by 200,000 to 300,000 tons per month. The estimate of sinkings was very nearly accurate. According to Admiralty figures, in April 1942, Allied merchant-ship losses to all causes were 132 ships for 674,457 tons. Axis submarines (German, Italian, Japanese) accounted for seventy-four ships for 431,664 tons.

* One week earlier, on May 7, Hitler had appointed his crony and erstwhile architect, Albert Speer, as Minister of Armament and War Production, replacing Fritz Todt, who was killed in a plane crash. Speer, who attended the May 14 meeting with Raeder and Donitz, also heartily endorsed the step-up in U-boat production and suggested that the necessary copper might be obtained by cannibalizing middle- and low-tension electric transmission lines throughout Europe. As an additional measure, the Germans stripped bells from churches all over Europe. One week earlier, on May 7, Hitler had appointed his crony and erstwhile architect, Albert Speer, as Minister of Armament and War Production, replacing Fritz Todt, who was killed in a plane crash. Speer, who attended the May 14 meeting with Raeder and Donitz, also heartily endorsed the step-up in U-boat production and suggested that the necessary copper might be obtained by cannibalizing middle- and low-tension electric transmission lines throughout Europe. As an additional measure, the Germans stripped bells from churches all over Europe.

* In all, the Japanese lost seventy-seven aircraft and 1,074 men; the Americans lost sixty-six aircraft and 543 men. In all, the Japanese lost seventy-seven aircraft and 1,074 men; the Americans lost sixty-six aircraft and 543 men.

* Long Island Long Island and a new destroyer, and a new destroyer, Aaron Ward Aaron Ward, reached the Pacific in late May. Wasp Wasp, North Carolina North Carolina, the cruisers Quincy and San Juan San Juan, and six modern destroyers entered the Pacific via the Panama Canal on June 10. The destroyers were Lang Lang, Stack Stack, Sterett, Wilson, and the new Buchanan Buchanan and and Farenholt Farenholt.

* The Type XB minelayer was the largest U-boat built by Germany in the war. It was 295 feet long and displaced about 1,700 tons. It could carry sixty-six SMA mines and the mooring gear: eighteen in six silos in the bow compartment and forty-eight in external canisters. For defensive purposes, it was fitted with two stern torpedo tubes and carried five internal reloads. In a resupply role, the XB could be fitted with eight topside torpedo canisters. The Type XB minelayer was the largest U-boat built by Germany in the war. It was 295 feet long and displaced about 1,700 tons. It could carry sixty-six SMA mines and the mooring gear: eighteen in six silos in the bow compartment and forty-eight in external canisters. For defensive purposes, it was fitted with two stern torpedo tubes and carried five internal reloads. In a resupply role, the XB could be fitted with eight topside torpedo canisters.

* To Aviles, Spain, where the boat ran aground. When she resailed, two Sunderlands of RAAF Squadron 10, piloted by Thomas A. Egerton and E. St. C. Yeoman, dropped fifteen depth charges and hounded her into Santander, Spain, where she was "interned." A month later she "escaped" and limped into Bordeaux. To Aviles, Spain, where the boat ran aground. When she resailed, two Sunderlands of RAAF Squadron 10, piloted by Thomas A. Egerton and E. St. C. Yeoman, dropped fifteen depth charges and hounded her into Santander, Spain, where she was "interned." A month later she "escaped" and limped into Bordeaux.

* Perhaps because a minelayer was employed, some historians have written incorrectly that Perhaps because a minelayer was employed, some historians have written incorrectly that U-213 U-213's special mission was to lay mines.

The St. Lawrence River, an outlet of the Great Lakes, is about 750 miles long. By means of an aged system of locks and canals, shallow-draft ships less than 270 feet long could navigate its entire length. During World War II, big oceangoing ships could only go upriver about halfway, to the cities of Quebec and Montreal. The St. Lawrence River, an outlet of the Great Lakes, is about 750 miles long. By means of an aged system of locks and canals, shallow-draft ships less than 270 feet long could navigate its entire length. During World War II, big oceangoing ships could only go upriver about halfway, to the cities of Quebec and Montreal.

* "Langbein-Haskins" was the first German agent to reach the Americas by submarine, but he apparently double-crossed the "Langbein-Haskins" was the first German agent to reach the Americas by submarine, but he apparently double-crossed the Abwehr Abwehr. He buried his uniform and the radio near the beach and made his way to Montreal. A month later, on June 19, 1942, he resettled in Ottawa. On November 1, 1944, he turned himself in to Canadian authorities, who put him in an internment camp for the rest of the war. Canadian counterintelligence officers concluded that "Langbein-Haskins" never engaged in espionage. He merely lived well in Ottawa on Abwehr Abwehr money until it ran out. money until it ran out.

* Gary Gentile wrote that Vogel gave the survivors of both ships rum and cigarettes, but refused a request from Gary Gentile wrote that Vogel gave the survivors of both ships rum and cigarettes, but refused a request from Margot Margot's captain to tow the lifeboats to shore.

* In May and June 1942, U-boats in American waters sank over a dozen small sailing vessels and fishing trawlers by gun. American submarines in Japanese waters routinely sank fishing trawlers for the same reasons. In May and June 1942, U-boats in American waters sank over a dozen small sailing vessels and fishing trawlers by gun. American submarines in Japanese waters routinely sank fishing trawlers for the same reasons.

At the time of the award, his confirmed score-all on At the time of the award, his confirmed score-all on U-432 U-432-was nineteen ships sunk for 68,900 tons, including the three trawlers.

Bristol, Broome, Cole, Dallas, Dickerson, Du Pont, Ellis, Herbert, Lea, Ludlow, MacLeish, McCormick, Roper, Semmes, Simpson, Woolsey Bristol, Broome, Cole, Dallas, Dickerson, Du Pont, Ellis, Herbert, Lea, Ludlow, MacLeish, McCormick, Roper, Semmes, Simpson, Woolsey.

* Not counting escort vessels. As related, von Forstner in U-402 sank the converted yacht Cythera off Cape Fear, May 2. On May 11, Gunther Krech in the VII Not counting escort vessels. As related, von Forstner in U-402 sank the converted yacht Cythera off Cape Fear, May 2. On May 11, Gunther Krech in the VII U-558 U-558 sank the British ASW trawler sank the British ASW trawler Bedfordshire Bedfordshire off Cape Lookout, with the loss of all thirty-seven crewmen. Six bodies were recovered and four were buried on Ocracoke Island in a plot deeded to the British government. off Cape Lookout, with the loss of all thirty-seven crewmen. Six bodies were recovered and four were buried on Ocracoke Island in a plot deeded to the British government.

Skottland, Plow City, Margot, Persephone Skottland, Plow City, Margot, Persephone.

* The The U-352 U-352 was rediscovered in 1975 by American salvage and sport divers. Many have dived on her over the years since and have entered her sand-filled interior, retrieving many artifacts. was rediscovered in 1975 by American salvage and sport divers. Many have dived on her over the years since and have entered her sand-filled interior, retrieving many artifacts.

* Fourteen of her crew died in the sinking, but sixty-two others were rescued by Catalinas and by the four-stack destroyer Hamilton. Fourteen of her crew died in the sinking, but sixty-two others were rescued by Catalinas and by the four-stack destroyer Hamilton.

For details of For details of U-753 U-753 in the Gulf of Mexico. in the Gulf of Mexico.

* Unescorted gulf shipping assembled for the escorted trip up the East Coast in an artificially created anchorage near Key West, protected by a field of 3,460 mines. On April 26, the four-stack destroyer Unescorted gulf shipping assembled for the escorted trip up the East Coast in an artificially created anchorage near Key West, protected by a field of 3,460 mines. On April 26, the four-stack destroyer Sturtevant Sturtevant struck one of the mines and sank, with the loss of fifteen men. struck one of the mines and sank, with the loss of fifteen men.

*Samuel Eliot Morison wrote that Schacht also shouted apologies and good luck to the fifty survivors. All were rescued by the 125-foot Coast Guard cutter Boutwell Boutwell.

*Halo was loaded with 63,000 barrels of crude oil. According to Jurgen Rohwer, she had been hit and damaged by two other U-boats earlier in the year: was loaded with 63,000 barrels of crude oil. According to Jurgen Rohwer, she had been hit and damaged by two other U-boats earlier in the year: U-130 U-130 and and U-126 U-126.

* At the time of the award, Winter's confirmed sinkings in three patrols were fifteen ships for 79,302 tons. Under Viktor Schutze and Winter, At the time of the award, Winter's confirmed sinkings in three patrols were fifteen ships for 79,302 tons. Under Viktor Schutze and Winter, U-103 U-103 had sunk forty-three confirmed ships for about 228,000 tons, ranking her, at that time, the third most successful U-boat fter had sunk forty-three confirmed ships for about 228,000 tons, ranking her, at that time, the third most successful U-boat fter U-48 U-48 and and U-99 U-99.

* Torpedoes in the Gulf Torpedoes in the Gulf (1995). (1995).

On May 25, Mayor Fiorello La Guardia dimmed out New York City. By that time, there were very few U-boats in the area, operating too far offshore to take advantage of the glow, even if that were possible. On May 25, Mayor Fiorello La Guardia dimmed out New York City. By that time, there were very few U-boats in the area, operating too far offshore to take advantage of the glow, even if that were possible.

* The American The American Esso Houston Esso Houston, 7,700 tons, and three British, Athelempress Athelempress, 8,900 tons; British Colony Colony, 6,900 tons; Beth Beth, 6,900 tons.

* An American ship towed An American ship towed Blakeley Blakeley to the nearby island of St. Lucia, where Washington had established air and naval bases. to the nearby island of St. Lucia, where Washington had established air and naval bases. Blakeley Blakeley was fitted with a new bow and returned to service in September 1942. was fitted with a new bow and returned to service in September 1942.

* Onetime merchant seaman Heyse stated in a document for submission in defense of Donitz at Nuremberg that he gave "dry bread and rum" to all the survivors of the Norwegian tanker Onetime merchant seaman Heyse stated in a document for submission in defense of Donitz at Nuremberg that he gave "dry bread and rum" to all the survivors of the Norwegian tanker South Africa South Africa, assisted survivors of the American freighter Polybius Polybius into lifeboats, and took aboard the captain of the American freighter into lifeboats, and took aboard the captain of the American freighter West Ira West Ira, who later sent Heyse a Christmas card recalling his "nice time" on U-128 U-128 during the voyage to France. during the voyage to France.

The crew of The crew of Scottsburg Scottsburg was rescued by another American freighter, the 6,000-ton was rescued by another American freighter, the 6,000-ton Kahuku Kahuku, which, however, was sunk two days later by Bauer in U-126 U-126. Bauer rescued a twice-sunk Scottsburg Scottsburg survivor, Archie Gibbs. Four days later, Bauer put Gibbs on board a small Venezuelan vessel, which made port, and Gibbs had an amazing story to tell. survivor, Archie Gibbs. Four days later, Bauer put Gibbs on board a small Venezuelan vessel, which made port, and Gibbs had an amazing story to tell.

* This last American MOEF, A-3, was usually composed of two of the five Atlantic-based Treasury-class Coast Guard cutters ( This last American MOEF, A-3, was usually composed of two of the five Atlantic-based Treasury-class Coast Guard cutters (Campbell, Ingham, Spencer, Bibb, or Duane) and up to six Canadian corvettes.

* See See Appendix 14 Appendix 14.

Guantanamo Bay is an American naval base and anchorage on the eastern extremity of Cuba, facing the Windward Passage. Guantanamo Bay is an American naval base and anchorage on the eastern extremity of Cuba, facing the Windward Passage.

* The total "overland" deliveries of oil rose nearly fivefold from 203,000 barrels a day in January 1942 to 956,000 barrels a day in June 1942. In the same period, deliveries by ocean tankers fell sixfold, from 1.3 million barrels a day to 226,000 barrels a day. The total "overland" deliveries of oil rose nearly fivefold from 203,000 barrels a day in January 1942 to 956,000 barrels a day in June 1942. In the same period, deliveries by ocean tankers fell sixfold, from 1.3 million barrels a day to 226,000 barrels a day.

* Those at the fronts deployed, by Winn's guesstimates, as follows: 125 in the Atlantic force, 35 in the Mediterranean force, 15 in the Arctic force, the rest in Germany. The actual deployment was 86 in the Atlantic force, 21 in the Mediterranean, and 21 in the Arctic. Those at the fronts deployed, by Winn's guesstimates, as follows: 125 in the Atlantic force, 35 in the Mediterranean force, 15 in the Arctic force, the rest in Germany. The actual deployment was 86 in the Atlantic force, 21 in the Mediterranean, and 21 in the Arctic.

* King's italics. King's italics.

* This group, codenamed Halpro, bombed the Ploesti oil fields, becoming the first Army Air Forces planes to strike a strategic target in Europe. This group, codenamed Halpro, bombed the Ploesti oil fields, becoming the first Army Air Forces planes to strike a strategic target in Europe.

* Plus Plus U-96 U-96, which had sailed in late April to a nearby area to escort the blockade runner Portland Portland into France, but could not find her. into France, but could not find her.

* The Allies developed a similar device, known as a Submarine Bubble Target (SBT). The Allies developed a similar device, known as a Submarine Bubble Target (SBT).

* Excluding Mohr's Excluding Mohr's U-124 U-124, which was due for a long overhaul. While the boat was shifting pens during this refit, Allied aircraft bombed and damaged her, delaying her return to combat to mid-November.

* Georg J. Dasch (leader), Heinrich H. Heinck, Richard Quirin, and Ernest P. Burger. Only the last traveled under his real name. Georg J. Dasch (leader), Heinrich H. Heinck, Richard Quirin, and Ernest P. Burger. Only the last traveled under his real name.

Edward J. Kerling (leader), Herbert Haupt, Werner Thiel, and Hermann Neubauer. Only Haupt traveled under his real name. Edward J. Kerling (leader), Herbert Haupt, Werner Thiel, and Hermann Neubauer. Only Haupt traveled under his real name.

* U-461 U-461, commanded by Wolf Stiebler, age thirty-four, which sailed from France June 21. The other was U-460 U-460, commanded by Friedrich Schafer, age forty-nine, which sailed from France on June 7.

* Owing to imprecise or erroneous position reports from the Hudson and others, the Navy could not find Owing to imprecise or erroneous position reports from the Hudson and others, the Navy could not find U-701 U-701 for salvage purposes. In 1989, sport divers found her on the bottom, lying on her starboard side. The divers confirmed severe damage to the stern. They contacted Degen and assured him the remains of the crew would not be disturbed. for salvage purposes. In 1989, sport divers found her on the bottom, lying on her starboard side. The divers confirmed severe damage to the stern. They contacted Degen and assured him the remains of the crew would not be disturbed.

*At the time of the award, Rostin's claimed sinkings were nineteen ships for about 112,000 tons. His confirmed sinkings were sixteen ships for about 90,400 tons.

In his two patrols to the Americas, Erich Rostin, virtually unknown in Germany, sank seventeen confirmed ships for 94,342 tons. In his two patrols to the Americas, Reinhard Hardegen in In his two patrols to the Americas, Erich Rostin, virtually unknown in Germany, sank seventeen confirmed ships for 94,342 tons. In his two patrols to the Americas, Reinhard Hardegen in U-123 U-123, a national hero, sank fifteen confirmed ships for 81,661 tons, plus the two ships that were salvaged. Rostin's two-patrol record was not exceeded by any other boat.

* The tankers sunk were three Americans- The tankers sunk were three Americans-Raleigh Warner, 3,700 tons; Benjamin Brewster Benjamin Brewster, 6,000 tons; and R. W. Gallagher R. W. Gallagher, 8,000 tons-and one British, Empire Mica, 8,000 tons. The tankers damaged were the Norwegian Nortind Nortind, 8,200 tons, and the American Paul H. Harwood Paul H. Harwood, 6,600 tons.

* At the time of the award, Merten's confirmed score was sixteen ships for 102,234 tons. At the time of the award, Merten's confirmed score was sixteen ships for 102,234 tons.

* Naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison wrote: "The U-boat machine-gunned women and children passengers at point blank range." If true, it was doubtless unintentional, one of several unfortunate instances when lifeboats or survivors may have drifted into the gunfire. The episode was not introduced as evidence at Donitz's trial at Nuremberg. Naval historian Samuel Eliot Morison wrote: "The U-boat machine-gunned women and children passengers at point blank range." If true, it was doubtless unintentional, one of several unfortunate instances when lifeboats or survivors may have drifted into the gunfire. The episode was not introduced as evidence at Donitz's trial at Nuremberg.

TEN.

THE S SHIFTING C CHARACTER OF THE U U-BOAT W WAR.

The massive German offensive in the Ukraine dominated all else in the summer of 1942. German forces had reached Rostov and Stalingrad by mid-July and were driving south to the Caucasus Mountains. Allied war planners in Washington and London assumed-quite wrongly-that the military forces of the Soviet Union could not hold out much longer. To help relieve pressures on the Red armies, they rushed preparation for Torch, the invasion of French Northwest Africa, which had replaced Sledgehammer as the emergency "second front" in 1942.

Over continuing objections from London, the Americans pressed for more and bigger Murmansk convoys to clear out the logjam of merchant ships loaded with war materiel for the Soviet Union. Reluctantly, the Admiralty had sailed convoy PQ 16 and its reverse, opposite-sailing sister convoy QP 12, on May 21. Capitalizing on the increasing hours of daylight in the Arctic, German dive bombers and torpedo planes based in northern Norway had sunk six out of thirty-five merchant ships from PQ 16 but none from QP 12. Hampered by the increasing hours of daylight, the Arctic U-boats had sunk one freighter from PQ 16, the 6,200-ton American Syros.

Under heavy pressure from Washington, the Admiralty sailed PQ 17 and its reverse, QP 13, on June 27. PQ 17 was the largest Murmansk convoy yet. The grim saga of this convoy will be related in due course. Suffice to say for now that it was a disaster, the worst convoy debacle of the war, and that the British refused to sail PQ 18 until all conditions in the Arctic were more favorable for the Allies. Partly as a result of this decision, on July 14, the battleship Washington and four destroyers* left the Home Fleet and returned to the States. left the Home Fleet and returned to the States.

On the other side of the globe, preparations for Watchtower, the invasion of Guadalcanal, proceeded apace but on a shoestring. Hampered by a shortage of everything, the amphibious forces suffered yet another setback when, on August 4, the modern (1935) American destroyer Tucker Tucker struck a mine and sank off the island of struck a mine and sank off the island of Espiritu Espiritu Santo in the New Hebrides. Santo in the New Hebrides.

Watchtower finally took place August 7. The carriers Enterprise, Saratoga, Wasp and the battleship North Carolina North Carolina, recently transferred from the Atlantic Fleet to the Pacific Fleet, as well as numerous heavy and light cruisers backed up the landing forces. Thirty American destroyers, including seven recently transferred from the Atlantic Fleet to the Pacific Fleet, provided escorts and screens for the naval forces. America's first "jeep" carrier, Long Island Long Island, also fresh from the Atlantic Fleet, ferried fighter aircraft to a position near the island and flew them off. Japanese aircraft badly mauled the American destroyer Mugford Mugford on D day, and the American destroyer on D day, and the American destroyer Jarvis Jarvis on the day following. on the day following.

On the second night of this operation, August 8-9, a Japanese force of seven cruisers (five heavy, two light) and one destroyer rushed from Rabaul to attack the Allied invaders. This engagement, a tragedy of errors known as the Battle of Savo Island, resulted in a devastating setback to the Allied naval forces. The Japanese sank four heavy cruisers (Astoria, Canberra, Quincy, Vincennes), damaged the destroyer Jarvis Jarvis, and badly wrecked the heavy cruiser Chicago, which limped back to California for months of repairs.

The loss of these warships endangered the Allied troops who had landed on Guadalcanal, established a foothold, and captured the Japanese landing strip, renamed Henderson Field. As a consequence, Admiral King directed Ingersoll to recall from the British Home Fleet all other American warships, including the heavy cruisers Wichita Wichita and and Tuscaloosa Tuscaloosa and the remaining two American destroyers, and the remaining two American destroyers, Emmons Emmons and and Rodman Rodman. King then sent the new battleships Washington Washington and and South Dakota South Dakota to the Pacific with an escort of six recently commissioned destroyers. to the Pacific with an escort of six recently commissioned destroyers.

In subsequent days, Allied and Japanese warships clashed again and again in the Solomon Island chain, resulting in further heavy Allied losses. On August 22, Japanese surface forces sank the destroyer Blue Blue. Two days later aircraft from Saratoga Saratoga sank the Japanese "jeep" carrier sank the Japanese "jeep" carrier Ryujo Ryujo, but Japanese aircraft hit and badly mangled the fleet carrier Enterprise Enterprise, which limped to Pearl Harbor for repairs. On August 31, a Japanese submarine, 1-123, hit and badly damaged the carrier Saratoga Saratoga, her second unfortunate encounter with an enemy submarine in 1942. Two weeks later, on September 15, the Japanese submarine 1-19 hit and so badly damaged the carrier Wasp that she had to be sunk by the destroyer Lansdowne Lansdowne, leaving only one battle-ready Allied carrier in the Pacific, Hornet Hornet. That same day, the Japanese submarine 1-15 hit and badly damaged the battleship North Carolina and the modern destroyer O'Brien. North Carolina O'Brien. North Carolina limped to Pearl Harbor for extended repairs, but while en route to San Francisco for repairs, limped to Pearl Harbor for extended repairs, but while en route to San Francisco for repairs, O'Brien O'Brien came apart and sank on October 19. The destroyer came apart and sank on October 19. The destroyer Lang Lang, steaming in company, rescued the crew.

All the while, warships of the shrinking Atlantic Fleet faithfully escorted troop convoys (ATs and NAs) from New York and Halifax to the British Isles and vice versa (TAs). The old battleships Arkansas, New York Arkansas, New York, and Texas Texas, the light cruisers Brooklyn Brooklyn and and Philadelphia Philadelphia, and destroyers provided the surface escort. Allied aircraft on the Eastern Seaboard and in Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Iceland, and the British Isles provided air escort. No U-boat attacked any of these troopship convoys and only two incidents marred an otherwise perfect record: * In the evening of August 22 in heavy fog off Halifax, the modern (1940) destroyer Buck, the flagship of John B. Heffernan, commander of a group of thirteen destroyers escorting troop convoy AT 20 (ten merchant ships plus New York New York and and Philadelphia Philadelphia), collided with the transport Awatea Awatea. Seven men on Buck Buck perished. Ordered to assist these damaged vessels, the modern (1941) destroyer perished. Ordered to assist these damaged vessels, the modern (1941) destroyer Ingraham Ingraham collided with a Navy tanker, collided with a Navy tanker, Chemung Chemung, and sank so swiftly that only eleven men were saved. The damaged tanker Chemung took the severely damaged destroyer Buck in tow until the Navy tug Cherokee Cherokee arrived at the scene. The badly damaged transport arrived at the scene. The badly damaged transport Awatea Awatea, escorted by the destroyer Bristol, turned back and put into Boston, as did Chemung Chemung and and Buck Buck. As a consequence of these accidents, convoy AT 20, which proceeded to the British Isles, was reduced by five ships, Ingraham Ingraham was the fifth destroyer of the Atlantic Fleet to be lost in less than a year. was the fifth destroyer of the Atlantic Fleet to be lost in less than a year.

* On September 3, while inbound to New York in convoy TA 18, the big American liner Manhattan Manhattan, converted to troopship Wakefield Wakefield, caught fire. The convoy escort (Arkansas, Brooklyn, and nine American destroyers) and numerous vessels that put out from Halifax removed about 1,500 passengers and crew from Wakefield Wakefield and took them on to New York. Two tugboats towed and took them on to New York. Two tugboats towed Wakefield Wakefield into Halifax, escorted by the into Halifax, escorted by the Treasury Treasury-class, Coast Guard cutter Campbell Campbell. Rebuilt in the States, Wakefield Wakefield returned to service in 1944. returned to service in 1944.

While these operations were in progress during the summer of 1942, the U-boat campaign in the Atlantic gradually changed in tempo, emphasis, and character. Two important factors led to the change.

First was a significant growth in the number of attack boats in the Atlantic U-boat force. This occurred because of the unusually low combat loss rate over the summer months, the completion of the buildup of the Arctic-Norway U-boat force to Hitler's mandated level, a decision to limit the buildup of the Mediterranean U-boat force, and the arrival of a flood of new boats that had been delayed in the Baltic by the heavy winter-ice conditions.*

The growth of the Atlantic U-boat force was significant, yet far less so than is usually depicted. Taking into account gains and losses, the force levels on the first of the month were as follows: * Includes all attack boats of the Atlantic force undergoing battle-damage repairs, such as Includes all attack boats of the Atlantic force undergoing battle-damage repairs, such as U-123 U-123, U-124 U-124, U-333 U-333, U-563 U-563, U-753 U-753.

The second factor was the sudden buildup of the Atlantic U-tanker force. In addition to the three aforementioned Type XIV tankers (U-459, U-460 U-460, U-461 U-461), the new U-462 U-462, U-463 U-463, and U-464 U-464 set sail for the Atlantic in the summer. One of these, set sail for the Atlantic in the summer. One of these, U-464 U-464, was lost as she entered the Atlantic, but the other five Type XIVs survived. In addition, pending the correction of defects in the SMA mines, the big minelayer U-116 U-116 continued in service as a provisional U-tanker. continued in service as a provisional U-tanker.

These six U-tankers plus the net gain of twenty-six Type VIIs over the summer offered the possibility of renewing the U-boat wolf pack war against the important North Atlantic convoy run in the distant Greenland "air gap" on a much firmer basis. The fresh VIIs outbound from Germany or France could attack en masse Outbound North and Outbound North (Slow) convoys proceeding westward toward Canada into ever-decreasing ASW measures, refuel from a U-tanker, then, provided they still had torpedoes, attack the Halifax and Slow Convoys proceeding eastward to the British Isles while they were still in the "air gap."

The biggest weakness in this scheme was that an extremely high percentage of the U-boats so assigned were to be new ones fresh from Germany. Since these green boats were to confront the most well-organized and experienced ASW air and surface forces in the Allied navies, U-boat losses were bound to rise sharply.

The possibility of renewing the convoy war on the North Atlantic run arose, coincidentally, with the increase in effectiveness of Allied ASW measures in the Americas, including convoying in the Eastern, Gulf, and Caribbean Sea Frontiers. The resulting decrease in successes by the Type VIIs in those waters strengthened the hands of those in Berlin who had objected to sending VIIs to the Americas in the first place. Although Donitz had plans to mount some wolf pack, or group, attacks on Allied convoys in the Caribbean by some veteran VIIs supported by U-tankers, he fully recognized the difficulties this entailed, including the debilitating impact of the tropical climate on the VII crews, and was more than willing to curtail and cancel those plans in favor of a shift of those veteran VIIs to the North Atlantic run to renew the U-boat war in those latitudes.

The arrival of the new U-tankers was also a timely boon for the Type IXs. The U-tankers enabled the IXs assigned to the waters of the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean to extend patrols in the hunting areas and to reach the approaches to the Panama Canal and Brazil without being obsessively concerned about running out of fuel on the way home. In addition, the U-tankers enabled Donitz to again assign IXs to patrol the distant Freetown area and beyond to interdict ship traffic in West African waters, including tankers coming from Trinidad under the new and temporary routing arrangement.

The gradual shift of patrol areas by the VIIs and IXs in the summer of 1942 developed as follows: * Sixteen sailed but the VIICs Sixteen sailed but the VIICs U-71 U-71 and and U-552 U-552, which attacked a convoy en route, returned to France for replenishment and/or battle-damage repairs, and the VIID minelayer U-214 U-214 was damaged by a British aircraft in the Bay of Biscay and forced to abort. was damaged by a British aircraft in the Bay of Biscay and forced to abort.

Eleven sailed; one, Eleven sailed; one, U-105 U-105, was damaged by a British aircraft in the Bay of Biscay and forced to abort.

Originally bound for the Americas via the North Atlantic, Originally bound for the Americas via the North Atlantic, U-43 U-43, U-174 U-174, and U-176 U-176 became involved in convoy chases and remained in that area. became involved in convoy chases and remained in that area.

Hitler very nearly upset all plans for deployment of U-boats over the summer. He suddenly proposed that Germany launch war against blatantly pro-American Brazil, which had provided the Americans with numerous air and naval bases, with a surprise attack by "ten or fifteen" boats operating against her major seaports. Donitz was intrigued, but in order to mount this surprise attack, it would have been necessary to cancel almost all other deployment plans, including the U-boat campaign in North American waters. He therefore urged that the attack on Brazil be delayed until he had more attack boats and a U-tanker to support them.

Berlin overrode Donitz. On June 15, Hitler directed Admiral Raeder to execute the mission in early August, and five days later the OKM issued an order to Donitz to proceed. Donitz in turn reluctantly designated ten U-boats for the task, supported by the provisional tanker U-116 U-116, and issued the skippers secret orders. However, when Hitler's foreign minister, Joachim von Ribbentrop, got wind of the plan, he objected to it vigorously on the grounds that it might alienate the pro-German governments in Argentina and Chile. On June 26, Hitler canceled the scheme.

At about this same time, Hitler became convinced that the Allies intended to seize the Portuguese Azores and Madeira islands. At a meeting with Admiral Raeder on June 15, according to the notes of the conference, Hitler proposed "that an operational group of submarines be held in readiness for the purpose of quick interference in case the enemy should suddenly strike...." Raeder demurred, stating that "we cannot afford to divert a considerable number of submarines for such a purpose alone." However, Raeder went on, it might be possible to form such a group "within the framework of our present submarine warfare." That is, to promptly assemble a pack from the streams of U-boats going to and from the Americas and West Africa. This solution satisfied Hitler.

JUNE P PATROLS TO T THE A AMERICAS.

Donitz scheduled thirty-five patrols to all Atlantic areas in June: twenty-four Type VIIs and eleven Type IXs. Twenty-seven boats were to continue the campaign in American waters. The other eight-all VIIs-were to sail late in the month to cadre new packs in the eastern and south Atlantic.

The June boats were to be supported by four U-tankers: von Wilamowitz-Mollendorf's Type XIV U-459 U-459 and Werner Schmidt's Type XB minelayer and Werner Schmidt's Type XB minelayer U-116 U-116, making second voyages; and the two new Type XIVs U-460 U-460 and and U-461 U-461.

Two of the Type VIIs sailing to the Americas in June were hit and disabled by Coastal Command aircraft in the Bay of Biscay: * On June 5, a Sunderland of the Royal Australian Air Force Squadron 10, based in southern England and piloted by S.R.C. Wood, straddled the veteran U-71 U-71, commanded by Walter Flachsenberg, with eight shallow-set Torpex depth charges, then raked it with 2,000 rounds of machine-gun fire, killing one of the crew. A Focke-Wulf Condor on patrol in the area attacked the Sunderland, wounding two airmen. German PT boats raced out to escort U-71 U-71 into La Pallice. Repaired quickly, the boat resailed a week later, on June 11. into La Pallice. Repaired quickly, the boat resailed a week later, on June 11.

* On June 15, an Allied aircraft attacked the U-214 U-214, commanded by Gunther Reeder, age twenty-six. She was another Type VIID minelayer, temporarily assigned to torpedo operations, that had sailed from Germany in May. Although the boat incurred "heavy" damage, the OKM diarist recorded, she managed to limp back to France on June 17. Repairs delayed her sailing to the first week in August.

* The attacks on these outbound as well as the inbound boats in the Bay of Biscay infuriated Donitz. He complained bitterly in his diary that owing to the unavailability of German aircraft, the Bay of Biscay had become a "playground" for British aircraft. It was "sad and very depressing" for the U-boat crews to realize that Germany had provided "no forces whatever" to protect U-boats in the Bay of Biscay or to escort damaged boats into port, leaving them vulnerable to repeated British aircraft attacks and forcing them to creep in and out of the bay mostly submerged.

Donitz iterated long-standing requests through official channels for aircraft protection. When these again failed to get results, on July 2 he flew to confer face-to-face with Luftwaffe Luftwaffe chief Hermann Goring at his headquarters in East Prussia. Goring explained that up to now the chief Hermann Goring at his headquarters in East Prussia. Goring explained that up to now the Luftwaffe Luftwaffe had sent every available aircraft to the Soviet Union or to the Mediterranean Basin. Nonetheless, he conceded the necessity for U-boat protection in the Bay of Biscay and personally ordered that twenty-four more JU-88s be assigned to the had sent every available aircraft to the Soviet Union or to the Mediterranean Basin. Nonetheless, he conceded the necessity for U-boat protection in the Bay of Biscay and personally ordered that twenty-four more JU-88s be assigned to the Luftwaffe Luftwaffe Atlantic command. Atlantic command.

As the other VIIs prepared to embark for the Americas, reliable Axis agents in Tangier reported the sailing of Homebound Gibraltar 84. Following the disastrous loss of Ritterkreuz Ritterkreuz holder Engelbert holder Engelbert Endrass Endrass in in U-567 U-567 and four other boats to the heavily escorted convoy Homebound Gibraltar 76 in December 1941, Donitz had prohibited attacks on inbound or outbound Gibraltar convoys. However, believing that after a layoff of six months, a sudden pack attack might find the escorts thinned out and unalert, Donitz directed that nine of the most experienced Type VIIs bound to the Americas were to divert to attack convoy Homebound Gibraltar 84, then refuel from a U-tanker and proceed westward. A successful attack would satisfy those at the OKM and elsewhere who insisted that the Type VIIs be utilized to interdict shipping closer to the battlefields. and four other boats to the heavily escorted convoy Homebound Gibraltar 76 in December 1941, Donitz had prohibited attacks on inbound or outbound Gibraltar convoys. However, believing that after a layoff of six months, a sudden pack attack might find the escorts thinned out and unalert, Donitz directed that nine of the most experienced Type VIIs bound to the Americas were to divert to attack convoy Homebound Gibraltar 84, then refuel from a U-tanker and proceed westward. A successful attack would satisfy those at the OKM and elsewhere who insisted that the Type VIIs be utilized to interdict shipping closer to the battlefields.

This very special pack was named Endrass to honor his memory and to avenge his loss to a Gibraltar convoy. Five of the nine boats, including U-552 U-552, commanded by the reigning "ace," Erich Topp, and Flachsenberg's resailing U-71 U-71, were among the most experienced boats in the Atlantic force. Two were transfers from the Arctic command: Ernst Vogelsang in U-132 U-132, who had sunk the treasury treasury-class Coast Guard cutter Alexander Hamilton Alexander Hamilton off Iceland in January and in so doing had incurred severe battle damage, and Rudolf Schendel in off Iceland in January and in so doing had incurred severe battle damage, and Rudolf Schendel in U-134 U-134, who had only just arrived in the Atlantic. Two other boats were green: Dietrich Lohmann, age thirty-two, in the new U-89 U-89, fresh from Germany, and Werner-Karl Schulz, age thirty-one, in the new U-437 U-437, who had escorted the blockade runner Munsterland Munsterland into France but had yet to make a full war patrol. into France but had yet to make a full war patrol.

The convoy sailed from Gibraltar on June 9. Composed of twenty merchant ships, it was escorted by Johnny Walker's famous Escort Group 36, which had been reduced temporarily to four vessels: Walker's sloop Stork Stork and three corvettes. The convoy included one fighter-catapult ship, and three corvettes. The convoy included one fighter-catapult ship, Empire Morns Empire Morns, equipped with one Hurricane to counterattack German aircraft. A rescue vessel, Copeland Copeland, fitted with Huff Duff, brought up the rear. On June 11, three escorted merchant ships from Lisbon joined the convoy, but those escorts proceeded to other assignments.

Attentive Focke-Wulf Condors tailed the three ships from Lisbon and reported the linkup with convoy Homebound Gibraltar 84. Responding to these accurate signals on the afternoon of June 14, Erich Topp in U-552 U-552 made contact with the convoy and brought up other Condors and three U-boats of group made contact with the convoy and brought up other Condors and three U-boats of group Endrass: Endrass: Vogelsang in Vogelsang in U-132 U-132 and the two green skippers, Lohmann in and the two green skippers, Lohmann in U-89 U-89 and Schulz in and Schulz in U-437 U-437.

The rescue ship Copeland Copeland DFed Topp's signals and alerted Johnny Walker in DFed Topp's signals and alerted Johnny Walker in Stork Stork, who went to battle stations promptly and directed Empire Morn Empire Morn to launch its Hurricane to drive off the German planes. The Hurricane carried out its mission, then ditched alongside to launch its Hurricane to drive off the German planes. The Hurricane carried out its mission, then ditched alongside Stork Stork, which recovered the pilot. Meanwhile Stork Stork arid the corvette Gardenia had found Vogelsang in arid the corvette Gardenia had found Vogelsang in U-132 U-132 astern of the convoy. In a relentless, well-conducted series of attacks, astern of the convoy. In a relentless, well-conducted series of attacks, Stork Stork and and Gardenia Gardenia dropped 110 depth charges near dropped 110 depth charges near U-132 U-132, severely damaging the boat and forcing it to fall out and back. At about that same time the corvettes Marigold Marigold and and Convolvulus Convolvulus found and attacked Lohmann in found and attacked Lohmann in U-89 U-89 and Schulz in and Schulz in U-437 U-437, forcing them off as well. Lohmann later reported he was hunted and depth-charged for thirty-one hours.

That night, while Walker's four escorts were chasing other boats, Topp in U-552 U-552 moved in to attack. He shot a full salvo of five torpedoes (four bow, one stem) from about 3,000 yards. Two torpedoes missed or malfunctioned, but the other three hit and sank three different ships: two British freighters, moved in to attack. He shot a full salvo of five torpedoes (four bow, one stem) from about 3,000 yards. Two torpedoes missed or malfunctioned, but the other three hit and sank three different ships: two British freighters, Etrib Etrib and and Pelayo Pelayo, for 3,300 tons, and the 7,400-ton Norwegian tanker Slemdal Slemdal. In the ensuing chaos Topp hauled off, reloaded his tubes, and eased back for a second attack. Again he fired a full salvo of five torpedoes. Again two missed or malfunctioned, Topp reported, and the other three hit. But he was mistaken; only two of the five hit and detonated, sinking two more British freighters for 5,200 tons: City of Oxford and Thurso City of Oxford and Thurso.

During the next day, June 15, five or more boats of group Endrass made contact with the convoy. Still hanging on, Topp loaded his last two torpedoes in his bow tubes for a daylight submerged attack, but he could not get around Walker's aggressive escorts to shoot. One escort caught Topp and dropped eight depth charges close to the boat, cracking a fuel-ballast tank and causing other serious damage. Another escort caught Walter Flachsenberg in U-71 U-71. The depth charges forced Flachsenberg to abort with battle damage for the second time in June. Only one other of the nine group Endrass Endrass boats was able to mount an attack: Gunther Heydemann in boats was able to mount an attack: Gunther Heydemann in U-575 U-575. He fired a full bow salvo at overlapping targets, but all four torpedoes missed or malfunctioned.

Commencing June 16, the British powerfully reinforced convoy Homebound Gibraltar 84 with surface ships and long-range aircraft. The destroyer Wild Swan Wild Swan and two frigates, and two frigates, Spey and Rother Spey and Rother, joined temporarily, until the arrival of Lancaster and B-24 Liberator heavy bombers and Catalina flying boats from southern England. On June 17 Donitz sent a flight of a dozen of the newly acquired JU-88s to assist the U-boats, but the German pilots mistook a fleet of Spanish fishing trawlers, amidst which the destroyer Wild Swan Wild Swan was cruising, for the convoy. was cruising, for the convoy. Wild Swan Wild Swan claimed four JU-88 kills before the dive bombers sank her and four trawlers. The destroyer Vansittart rescued 133 survivors of claimed four JU-88 kills before the dive bombers sank her and four trawlers. The destroyer Vansittart rescued 133 survivors of Wild Swan Wild Swan and eleven Spanish fishermen. and eleven Spanish fishermen.

As Homebound Gibraltar 84 inched closer to the British Isles, Coastal Command added medium-range Hudsons to the air coverage. Altogether thirty-six different aircraft flew out from England to Walker's assistance. In the face of this air saturation, Donitz canceled the operations of group Endrass Endrass. Flachsenberg in U-71 U-71 and Topp in and Topp in U-552 U-552 returned to France for battle repairs and replenishment. Upon arrival, Flachsenberg left the boat for other duties. Although returned to France for battle repairs and replenishment. Upon arrival, Flachsenberg left the boat for other duties. Although U-132 U-132 was badly damaged, Vogelsang, who had been worked over badly in two successive Atlantic outings, resisted orders to return to France. was badly damaged, Vogelsang, who had been worked over badly in two successive Atlantic outings, resisted orders to return to France.

Johnny Walker had lost five of twenty-three ships in his convoy, yet he was commended for thwarting with very slim forces what might easily have become a massacre. For Donitz, the outcome was a sharp disappointment. Of the nine skippers in group Endrass Endrass, only one, Erich Topp, had inflicted any real damage on the enemy: five confirmed ships sunk for 15,858 tons. Donitz blamed the lack of success on the unexpected appearance of the very-long-range land-based aircraft (Lancasters and Liberators) and the failure of the JU-88s to counter them. However, shipboard Type 271 radar and Huff Duff (about which Donitz knew nothing), aircraft radar, and shallow-set Torpex depth charges were also important ASW measures working against the Germans.

As planned, the seven remaining Type VIIs of group Endrass Endrass refueled from the U-tankers and proceeded to American waters. Six other Type VIIs sailed independently to the Americas in June, for a total of thirteen. The independents included one refueled from the U-tankers and proceeded to American waters. Six other Type VIIs sailed independently to the Americas in June, for a total of thirteen. The independents included one Ritterkreuz Ritterkreuz holder, Rolf Mutzelburg in holder, Rolf Mutzelburg in U-203 U-203.

Kerneval directed two of the thirteen VIIs en route to the Americas to begin their patrols in Canadian waters. Ernst Vogelsang in U-132 U-132 was to emulate Thurmann in was to emulate Thurmann in U-553 U-553 and penetrate the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The green skipper, Fritz Hoeckner, age twenty-nine, in the new Type VIID minelayer and penetrate the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The green skipper, Fritz Hoeckner, age twenty-nine, in the new Type VIID minelayer U-215 U-215 was to patrol near Cape Sable. Both boats reached Canadian waters on about July 1. was to patrol near Cape Sable. Both boats reached Canadian waters on about July 1.

At this time convoys AT 17A-AT 17B sailed from New York and Halifax. Composed of nine troopships, the combined convoys were escorted by Task Force 37 (the battleship Texas Texas, the cruiser Philadelphia Philadelphia, and fourteen American destroyers), which sailed all the way across to the British Isles. Four of the destroyers went on to Scapa Flow to replace other American ships leaving the British Home Fleet: Emmons, Hambleton, Macomb, and Rodman Emmons, Hambleton, Macomb, and Rodman.

Neither U-132 U-132 nor nor U-215 U-215 had any contact with troopship convoy AT 17A-AT 17B, but Hoeckner in had any contact with troopship convoy AT 17A-AT 17B, but Hoeckner in U-215 U-215 drew first blood, a fatal encounter for the boat and crew, as it turned out. On July 3, his twenty-fifth day at sea, while south of Cape Sable, he found the thinly escorted Boston-Halifax convoy BX 2. He attacked and sank the 7,200-ton American Liberty ship drew first blood, a fatal encounter for the boat and crew, as it turned out. On July 3, his twenty-fifth day at sea, while south of Cape Sable, he found the thinly escorted Boston-Halifax convoy BX 2. He attacked and sank the 7,200-ton American Liberty ship Alexander Macomb Alexander Macomb, but one of the escorts fixed and counterattacked U-215 U-215 with depth charges. The Allies gave credit for the kill to the British ASW trawler with depth charges. The Allies gave credit for the kill to the British ASW trawler Le Tigre Le Tigre. There were no survivors from U-215 U-215.

Vogelsang in U-132 U-132 ran right through the Cabot Strait into the Gulf of St. Lawrence on July 1. Crossing the gulf on a northwest course, he rounded the Gaspe Peninsula and boldly entered the mouth of the St. Lawrence River at Cap-Chat. There he waited for a Quebec-Sydney convoy. In the early hours of July 6, he found one (Number 15) in bright moonlight and fired a full salvo of five torpedoes. Three missed or malfunctioned, but the other two hit and sank two freighters for about 6,000 tons. After a fast reload, Vogelsang mounted a second attack and sank another freighter for 4,300 tons. One of the Canadian escorts, the minesweeper ran right through the Cabot Strait into the Gulf of St. Lawrence on July 1. Crossing the gulf on a northwest course, he rounded the Gaspe Peninsula and boldly entered the mouth of the St. Lawrence River at Cap-Chat. There he waited for a Quebec-Sydney convoy. In the early hours of July 6, he found one (Number 15) in bright moonlight and fired a full salvo of five torpedoes. Three missed or malfunctioned, but the other two hit and sank two freighters for about 6,000 tons. After a fast reload, Vogelsang mounted a second attack and sank another freighter for 4,300 tons. One of the Canadian escorts, the minesweeper Drummondville Drummondville, counterattacked U-132 U-132, drove her under, and pum-meled her with close depth charges, but inexplicably failed to persist in the attack. As a result, Vogelsang escaped downriver into the gulf and got away to make urgent repairs. His bold attack on Quebec's "doorstep" caused yet another outburst of indignation within the Canadian government, but the losses were withheld from the public.