Most 17th century breeders carefully selected both sire and dam and kept records as to the animals used. The breeders had a specific confirmation and temperament in mind as they selected and bred. They did not place as great an importance on the origins of a horse as they did on its physical and mental suitability. If the object was to breed large draft horses with feathers then they selected the largest horses with draft type builds and feathers and bred them together until they achieved a strain that bred true.

An Oldenburg horse was a horse bred by Graf Johann XVI von Oldenburg (1573-1603) or his son, Graf Anton Gunther von Oldenburg (1603-1667). Graf Johann and Graf Anton Gunther were breeding fancy carriage horses that could also be ridden. They selected those horses that most closely matched what they intended the end product to be and bred them together. These horses were known as "Oldenburgs." However, as Graf Anton Gunther allowed tenants and others to breed their mares to his stallions, the term "Oldenburg" might also apply to animals that did not come from the Graf's breeding program. The upshot was if the horse met the criteria of an Oldenburg, it was acceptable to almost everyone as an Oldenburg. Naturally those horses sold from the Graf's stables commanded the higher price and some people undoubtedly got taken by smooth talking horse traders into thinking that the Oldenburg they purchase had come directly out of Graf Anton Gunther's stables instead of Bauer Schmidt's pasture.

Today, what we know as breeds have studbooks and registries to control which animals can be called by the breed name. A studbook is a list of horses meeting the standards of the breed and being registered as that breed. Some breeds have closed studbooks; others run open studbooks.

The Thoroughbred is an example of a closed studbook. No Thoroughbred can be registered unless both of its parents are also registered Thoroughbreds. A Thoroughbred must be able to trace its ancestry back to the horses found in the General Stud Book (GSB). The GSB was established and first printed in 1808.

The GSB used private records to attempt to detail all the horses that deserved the name Thoroughbred.

At the beginning, in the late 17th century and early 18th century, there was no such thing as a Thoroughbred and those developing the breed had no controls on what animals could be bred. The Thoroughbred was developed in England as a light cavalry and racehorse. Reading the GSB you find horses listed as Turks, Barbs, Arabians, Royal mares (no breed specified) and others with only a descriptive name such as Old Bald Peg. At its beginnings, the Thoroughbred was a type. When that type had reached a point where it was breeding true the studbook was established and closed.

With a closed studbook the horse still has to meet the breed standards to be accepted and registered.

Many closed breed books only allow certain coat colors. With Andalusians, only Gray (which ages to white), Black, and Bay are allowable colors. Closed books usually require an examination by a breed judge before the horse can be registered.

The other option is an open studbook. In most breeds today with an open studbook the term "open" is a bit of a misnomer as the registry only allows breeding to certain other registered breeds. Taking the Quarter Horse Stud Book as an example, to register a horse as a Quarterhorse both of its parents must be registered Quarterhorses or one parent must be a registered Quarterhorse and the other must be registered as one of the other acceptable breeds, such as Thoroughbred. A racing Quarterhorse may actually be 7/8ths Thoroughbred. One result of this style of open studbook that Quarterhorse confirmation has divided into racing, ranch, and show types. There is an ongoing debate among QH breeders as to the physical standards of the breed.

Perhaps a better example of an open studbook can be found today in the various Warmblood registries.

In most, one parent must be registered as a Warmblood, the other should preferably be from a recognized breed, but if the horse meets the confirmation and performance standards it can be registered.

Some of the color breeds, such as Paint Horse, allow almost any animal displaying the appropriate color to be registered. It is preferred that an animal have parents registered in one of the recognized breeds, but not strictly necessary. With the concentration being on color one finds a wide range of conformation in these breeds.

Open or Closed Studbooks do have breed standards. Even when both the parents were registered members of the breed, if the offspring does not exhibit the desired traits it can not be registered. I offer an example of one such here: A very well known and respected Arabian breeder had set up a mating that should have resulted in a dream horse. The foal was a nightmare. While not deformed, it certainly did not meet the breed standards and was an embarra.s.sment to the breeder. Some foals do grow out of their problems, so the breeder stuck this one in a far pasture and let him mature. At two years of age, the colt looked no better. The breeder called his vet and told him to destroy the colt. Instead the vet convinced the breeder to give him the colt and he would find it a home where no one would know his bloodlines.

Many people learned to ride on the back of this gelding, little guessing what Arabian blue blood ran in its ugly body. He was never registered and the record for his dam the year of his birth lists "foal died."

Except for a couple of breeds there were no studbooks prior to the 1800s. The idea of studbooks seems to have developed late and it is only in the latter part of the 19th century that the idea of closed studbooks appear. This does not mean there were no records, only that what records existed were kept by the individual breeders. The early studbooks consisted of careful notes by the breeders of matings and the results. There was no central registry, no control over what could or could not be called by a breed name. Even these early versions of studbooks were striving to breed a type of horse.

There is a specific meaning for the term "type." A type is a collection of desired traits including conformation, abilities, coloration, personality, and such that are determined by the breeder or breeders to be what they want in their animals. There is no dependence on the sire or dam being listed in a studbook, only on what the actual animal is like. Today there are many grade horses (unregistered) that meet the physical standards for various breeds. Because one or both of their parents were not registered they cannot be registered and none of their offspring can be registered. In the past this would not have mattered in considering them for breeding.

What does the above have to do with Grantville? After all, by the 17th century horse breeders in Europe have been breeding types of horses literally for millennium. In breeding, the guideline has always been: "Breed the best to the best and hope for the best and cull the rest." This was well understood by the horse breeders of the time.

The Impact of Up-time Horses I've consulted with Cheryl Daetwyler, who lives in and is familiar with the area upon which Grantville was modeled (the real town of Mannington and its immediate surroundings), and we've come to the conclusion that a lot of up-time horses came through the RoF. While we do not have an actual nose count, of course, it should be at least 1,000 and perhaps as many as 1,700. Many people have a horse or three tucked away on the odd acre of gra.s.s. The heaviest breed concentrations seem to be Quarterhorse and Appaloosa with smatterings of every other breed found in the U.S.

If we start with the low end of the number of horses in the RoF, we have a thousand horses. How does this break down into mares, geldings, and stallions? Still, with all these horses, I could identify only three stallions within the ROF area, one Quarterhorse, one Appaloosa, and one Belgian. That leaves us with 997 horses to account for. At a guess based on my horse experiences, the majority are geldings.

Geldings are the most popular for just plain general riding. a.s.suming that 600 of the remaining horses are geldings, that leaves us with 367 mares and foals. There are people in the Mannington area breeding horses, so we have to a.s.sume a percentage of the remaining horses are foals. Arbitrarily, let's say that 67 of the 367 are foals between newborn and two years old. This leaves us with 300 mares.

Now the question becomes: how many of the mares are of A) breeding quality; and B) breeding age?

At a guesstimate again based on experience, we have around 1/3 or 100 mares that are too old for breeding. Some mares are successfully bred into their twenties but as the years pile on the chances of a successful breeding starts going down. If a mare has never been bred, something common with riding stock, the chances of successfully breeding her over the age of 17-18 approaches zero. Note, this comment is for mares that have never been bred only. While successful breeding difficulties do increase with the mare's age they do not rule out breeding entirely. Secretariat's dam was 18 when she dropped him and I don't know anyone who will argue about his quality. Mind, breeding older never-before-bred mares has been done, and it can be done, but the risk of losing both mare and foal are very high even when you can get the mare bred in the first place.

This leaves us with 200 mares, a goodly number, but...

Another guesstimate gives us 50 of these remaining mares as being under four years old. They can be bred, but as with the older mares, this is risky. Better let them grow up a bit.

Now we've got 150 mares to breed. How many are worth breeding? Some have conformation faults so great that no breeder seeking usable horses would think of breeding them. Some have temperament problems and should not be bred. The general rate of successful breeding-i.e., the mare is bred, carries, and delivers a live foal-runs around 75%. (I'm being generous here--the more normal rate for estimating is 60%). If we breed all 150 despite confirmation questions, we could expect 112 live births. By the time they are one year old, this number will be reduced to 100 or less due to birth defects, accidents, infections, and injuries Grantville's vets can no longer control. Remember also, these mares are of many different breeds and the immediately available up-time stallions are of just three breeds. This is not a good case for most these mares breeding true to their own type. The reestablishment of any up-time breed is therefore chancy due to the lack of numbers.

Another wet blanket is the problem of several of the up-time breeds having multiple, distinct body types.

As mentioned above, the Quarterhorse has divided into three body types. I've heard endless lectures from a friend on "old-type" vs. "new type" Morgans and even I can see the differences. One would think that Thoroughbreds would not change body type much, as they have continued to be used for racing.

Not so. On a long, warm afternoon several years ago I had the privilege to be seated amongst a group of elderly Thoroughbred breeders while watching Grand Prix Jumping. What interested me was their agreement-and agreement among two or more breeders on anything is rare-that today's Thoroughbreds do not resemble those of forty or more years ago. This sent me off to look up some old pictures. The Thoroughbreds that most closely resembled the old horses were those bred for jumping and dressage, not for racing.

Chancy or not, we also have to take a very long and hard look at what our up-time horses have to offer in improvements over the existing European stock. Unfortunately the answer to that is "Not much."

Europe at this time is full of horses well suited to their uses.

Please remember:in the 17th century horses were not a hobby . Life and death could and did ride on their backs. A moderate quality riding horse would be expected to do forty miles a day for several days.

Many of today's horses are physically unable to cover twenty miles a day without a day or so of rest.

And before I have all the horse folks on my neck, yes, it can be strictly a matter of conditioning.

Unfortunately I've seen and dealt with a lot of stock that physically could not be conditioned to even that level. Go out and look at your horses and try to see them through the eyes of a 17th century horseman.

What does your horse offer that he cannot find among his own down-time horses?

The answer to our question comes down to:What impact will these foals have on the horses of the 17th century? Except in the case of HyPP in descendants of Impressive and the possibility of there being an X-Factor Thoroughbred mare in Grantville, the answer sadly has to be:little or none .

If any of the breeding stock is carrying the HyPP gene (Hyperkalemic Periodic Paralysis), using them for breeding would be stupid and in the long term, dangerous. HyPP makes itself known by shaking, trembling, weakness (especially in the hind end), unexplained lameness and collapse. Horses with the gene may die suddenly at any age, apparently from heart failure or respiratory paralysis. HyPP has been called the equine AIDS. This is not something you want in horses that are necessary for transportation, farming, or cavalry. Today it can be tested for and, to some extent, managed. Unfortunately vets send their specimens out to specialized labs for testing. Grantville does not have such a lab and so the ability to test is lost.

Even if there is a Thoroughbred mare carrying the X-Factor gene, the beneficial results (a greatly improved cardiovascular system through a larger heart) will take a very long time to show up. Also, unless she is a double X mare, we would again be reduced to waiting until her offspring are dead to determine which of them inherited the gene. A better gift than HyPP, but one that will not make its impact for generations.

Fear not, there is one area where Grantville has a head start. We've identified a small farm breeding Belgians (heavy draft horses) within the RoF. As best I can determine the OTL family that owns them breeds for show and sale. It appears that they have one stallion and about eight to ten mares. They also seem to have frozen s.e.m.e.n from at least one other Belgian stallion on hand. As discussed elsewhere, the true heavy draft horses came into being in the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. Down-time breeders, once they understand the new demand for heavy draft horses, will begin to develop and remold their medium draft breeds but the process can take from thirty to one hundred years before the down-timers will have true breeding heavy draft horses.

What Grantville can offer is mostly an understanding of basic genetics, veterinary help, better parasite control, small improvements to draft harnesses, major improvements to saddle building, and four hundred additional years of general horse knowledge. Whether or not the horse breeders of the 17th century embrace these gifts is a different question.

Horses of the 17thCentury So, what horses are available to Grantville and the surrounding area?

Grantville found itself both in the middle of both the Thirty Years War and a devastated area, repeatedly fought and picked over. Within this area the immediately available equine resources were primarily limited to those brought along by the Ring of Fire (RoF). There were very few useful down-time horses, mules, or oxen available locally. Within the RoF there are lots of riding horses but few suited to draft purposes.

To insure survival, Grantville and the local down-time farmers need to find suitable draft animals.

Horses are available elsewhere in Europe. The prices have gone up, especially close to the devastated area. Horse dealers have to travel further to buy stock. They have to move their stock safely past armies that are always in need of fresh animals. This costs money in the form of additional guards and/or bribes.

The added costs go into the end price of the horses. On the other hand, from the horse traders' point of view, it is definitely a seller's market. Horses are so desperately needed that animals rejected elsewhere command premium prices within the devastated area. In the end, the horses and mules are out there, but they cost more and your choices are not all first quality animals.

What follows below is a survey of draft horse breeds of Europe. Included are some modern breeds as well as those that existed in the 17thcentury. A few breeds for which there is very little information are excluded. These breeds may be extinct or the name has changed. Breed names do change and one breed may be known under several names or by different names at different times or in different places.

Breeds change more than their names. They change in size, type, natural gaits, and usage, also. Present day examples of any horse breed may have little resemblance to their ancestors. Horses have been molded to fit the requirements and fashions of every age. Few pictures exist that identify breeds so we cannot say with any certainty what most breeds looked like in the 17thcentury.

Many European breeds saw the introduction of Arabian, Turkish, and Barb blood when the Crusaders returned with their equine prizes. Poland became a major breeding area of Arabians but the fashion for mixing Oriental horses with native stock began as early as the 1300s and continues through today.

A note on terminology: Where possible, the century of development is given; otherwise the terms Modern, Ancient, and Old are used to indicate the relative development period. Some breeds have gone through various periods of development.

"Modern" indicates the breed was developed in the 18th, 19th, or 20th century.

"Ancient" is used for breeds whose development can be traced to before the Middle Ages (12th century or earlier).

"Old" is used for breeds that can be shown to have existed prior to the 17th century, but not as far back as "Ancient."

"Draft" indicates use for pulling wagons, carriages, plows, ca.n.a.l barges, etc.

"Saddle" indicates use for riding.

"Warhorse" indicates a horse used for war. This might be an armsman's horse or a destrier (knight's horse).

"Pack" indicates use as a pack animal, which was quite common in areas with bad roads.

European Draft Horses Austria: Avelignese.Italian Alps region. Small saddle, pack, & light draft horse. Old breed.

Lipizzan.Vienna. Warhorse, saddle horse. 16th century, established in 1580 by Archduke Charles II.

Noric.Also known as Noriker or Norisches Kaltbult (German), Pinzgauer-see below.

Noriker.Four main bloodlines: South German Coldblood (also called the Bavarian), the Steier, the Tiroler and the Karntner. Draft horse. Ancient breed.

Balkans: Albanian Mountain.Small saddle horse, warhorse & pack horse. Ancient breed with a 14th century infusion of Arab blood.

Albanian Myzeqea.Pony sized saddle & pack horse. Ancient breed with a 14th century infusion of Arab blood.

Danube.Light saddle and draft horse from Bulgaria. Modern (19th century).

Belgium: Ardennais, aka Cheval de Trait Ardennais or Ardennais (French), Belgian Ardennes.Heavy draft horse. Ancient breed, much altered in the early 19th century and again in the early to mid 20th century.

Belgian Draft Horse, aka Brabant.Draft horse. Ancient breed that may have been used as a warhorse by the Romans before being bred up in size for draft.

Flemish.Draft horse and possibly warhorse, considered the rootstock for the Belgians. Ancient breed, much altered in the early 19th century and again in the early to mid 20th century. It is rare today.

Bulgaria: Danube, aka Dunavska, Danubian, Dunav.Saddle & light draft. Modern (20th century).

Czech Republic: Kladruber, aka Kladruby.Carriage horse, possibly a warhorse. 15th & 16th century roots with Spanish and Italian ancestors, especially the Alpine western horse. Rudolf II, the son of Maximilian II, established the Bohemian court stud farm in the year 1579 at Kladruby by the river Elbe.

Denmark: Frederiksborg.Saddle, carriage, and cavalry horse. Stud farm founded in 1560s by King Frederick II with Spanish and Neapolitan stock with large infusions of Thoroughbreds in the 19th century.

Jutland.Draft horse, possibly a warhorse. Old breed, updated in the 19th & 20th centuries.

Knabstrup.Saddle and carriage horse. Old breed.

Estonia: Toric, aka Tori.Light draft, saddle, carriage horse. Modern (19th century).

Estonian Native, aka Mestnaya estonskaya, Estonskaya loshad, Estonian Klepper, Estonian Pony.Saddle & light draft horse. Ancient breed.

Finland: Finnish Horse.Saddle horse. Modern (19th century?).

Finnish Draft.Draft horse. Modern (19th & 20th centuries).

France: Ardennes, aka Cheval de Trait Ardennais or Ardennais (French), Belgian Ardennes.Draft horse. Ancient breed.

Auxois.Draft horse. Old breed updated in the 19th century.

Breton.Draft horse. Ancient breed with three distinct branches-Heavy Draft Breton, the Postier Breton and the Corlay or Central Mountain Breton.

Corlay or Central Mountain Breton.Draft horse, crossed heavily with Arab and Thoroughbred in the 18th, 19th & 20th centuries.

Postier Breton.Coach horse crossed with English Norfolk Trotter and Hackney in the 19th century.

Heavy Draft Breton.Draft horse crossed with Ardennes and Percheron stock in the 19th & 20th centuries.

Boulonnais.Draft horse. An ancient breed (1st-2nd century A.D.) which may have been lightened up for use as a jousting horse. There are two distinct branches. The "fish cart" Boulonnais was a light draft horse with good endurance developed in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Large Boulonnais orMaree was a heavy draft horse-a true "heavy" developed in the 19th century. This version is very rare today.

Camarque.Saddle horse. Old breed.

Comtois.Draft horse; may have seen use as a heavy warhorse. Old breed.

Mula.s.sier.Draft breed, now very rare. Horse half of thePoitou Mule . Old breed, possibly ancient breed. Mula.s.sier means "mule breeder."

Percheron.Draft horse, may have been used as a heavy warhorse. Old breed, reputed to be crossed with Arabians in the 14th-15th centuries.

Poitevin.Draft horse-see Mula.s.sier.

Selle Francais. Saddle horse. Modern (19th & 20th centuries).

Poitou donkey.Donkey half of Poitou Mule. Ancient breed-large, hairy, and very rare. Breed has remained pure (no outcrossings to other types of donkeys) because it breeds such good mules.

Germany: Hanoverian.Saddle horse. Origins may be 17th century; 20th century infusion of Thoroughbred.

Holsteiner.(aka Schleswig-Holstein). Saddle, draft, carriage, cavalry horse. Old breed (12th-13th centuries) with much use of Spanish, Neapolitan, and Oriental stock. Much updated with other breeds in the 19th and 20th centuries.

Oldenburg.Saddle horse. 16th century breed Trakehner.Saddle horse, cavalry horse. 18th century breed; 19th & 20th century infusions of Thoroughbred.

Rhenish German Coldblood.Draft horse. 20th century breed, rare today Schleswiger Heavy Draft.Heavy draft version of Schleswig-Holstein draft horse. 19th century breed.

Schleswig-Holstein. Draft horse, carriage horse. 19th century breed.

South German Horse.Heavy draft horse. 19th century breed.

Britain, Scotland & Ireland: Cleveland Bay.Saddle, pack, draft, carriage horse. 17th century breed.

Clydesdale.Heavy draft horse. Breed's beginnings trace to late 16th century.

Hackney horse.Saddle & carriage horse. 18th century breed.