* The "opening out" of Halifax convoy sailings from every six days to every seven days, in part to compensate for the diversion of American destroyers in the MOEF to the escort of troopship convoys. This step reduced the number of Halifax convoy sailings per year by about nine, from about sixty-one per year to about fifty-two. Assuming a rock-bottom average of forty ships per Halifax convoy, that amounted to a reduction of about 360 ship arrivals per year in Halifax convoys, or about 240 ships in the first eight months of 1942.

PLATE 14 14.

* The rerouting of many loaded tankers en route from the Caribbean to the United Kingdom via Freetown, thence homeward in slow Sierra Leone convoys.

These three measures plus losses to U-boats resulted in yet another sharp drop in total imports to the United Kingdom in the first eight months of 1942: from 28,466, 000 tons in 1941 to 23,402,000 in 1942 (see Plate 14). This was a decline in basic imports of about 5 million tons, and it led to very real hardships in the British Isles-food, heating fuel, and gasoline shortages, among others-and to serious second thoughts about diverting so much shipping to provide aid to the Soviet Union and about embarking on further military campaigns such as Torch; it led as well to renewed demands on Washington for a larger share of the shipping allocations.

On one hand, it would not be correct to suggest that the U-boat campaign in American waters was of small consequence. It hurt the Allies badly in several ways and caused death and terror in the ranks of the American and British merchant marines. On the other hand, it must be deemed an unrealized victory in the sense that it did not achieve the decisive strategic results that Donitz sought. Men and materiel and new ships of all types continued to flow from the United States to the far corners of the globe in prodigious quantities.

The principal achievement of the U-boat campaign in American waters was to force the Allies to commit vast resources to extending the convoy network to the Eastern Seaboard, the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean Sea, and Latin America. Even though the U-boat menace in these areas diminished rather quickly and soon evaporated in the face of improved ASW, this new and complex network, called the "Interlocking Convoy System," remained in place to the end of the war. Even allowing for exaggeration in Churchill's estimate that convoying by itself reduced British imports by "one-third," doubtless convoying in North and South American waters, however efficient, substantially retarded the flow of raw materials and goods by ship to the end of hostilities.

This concludes our study of the first two phases of the German U-boat campaign-the nearly separate wars against the British Empire and the Americas, taking the story to September 1, 1942. The U-boat campaign against Allied shipping continued for thirty-two more months-in fact, to May 8, 1945, the very last day of the war in Europe. This third and final phase of the campaign will be described and assessed in Volume II of this study.

* Mayrant, Rhind, Rowan, Wainwright Mayrant, Rhind, Rowan, Wainwright.

Barton, Duncan, Lansdowne, Lardner, McCalla, Meade Barton, Duncan, Lansdowne, Lardner, McCalla, Meade. The last was commissioned June 22.

* Even so, on June 21 Donitz complained to Berlin that of 138 U-boats recently commissioned, sixty-three were still in the Baltic four months after commissioning. Moreover, accidents in the Baltic. The VII Even so, on June 21 Donitz complained to Berlin that of 138 U-boats recently commissioned, sixty-three were still in the Baltic four months after commissioning. Moreover, accidents in the Baltic. The VII U-596 U-596 had a battery explosion that delayed her sailing from June to August. The VII had a battery explosion that delayed her sailing from June to August. The VII U-606 U-606 had a bad engine-room fire. The VII had a bad engine-room fire. The VII U-444 U-444 rammed and sank the VII rammed and sank the VII U-612 U-612 on August 6. The on August 6. The U-612 U-612 was salvaged but restricted to service as a school boat. Repeatedly set back by mechanical problems-some attributed to sabotage-it took the IX was salvaged but restricted to service as a school boat. Repeatedly set back by mechanical problems-some attributed to sabotage-it took the IX U-164 U-164 nearly eight months to get out of the Baltic. nearly eight months to get out of the Baltic.

* At Argentia, on May 29, At Argentia, on May 29, Spry Spry had caught fire while alongside the valuable new destroyer tender had caught fire while alongside the valuable new destroyer tender Prairie Prairie. The fire spread to Prairie Prairie, causing "extensive damage," which compelled Prairie Prairie to return to Boston for months of repairs. to return to Boston for months of repairs.

* At the time of the award, Mutzelburg's confirmed score was twenty ships for about 83,000 tons. At that time, only two other skippers of the Atlantic U-boat force wore the Oak Leaves: Erich Topp in At the time of the award, Mutzelburg's confirmed score was twenty ships for about 83,000 tons. At that time, only two other skippers of the Atlantic U-boat force wore the Oak Leaves: Erich Topp in U-552 U-552 and Reinhard Suhren in and Reinhard Suhren in U-564 U-564.

* The The U-166 U-166 burst into the news in April 1971, when a Florida salvor asserted that she had somehow drifted across the gulf to the Tampa area and that there was danger that the 200 tons of mercury she carried for ballast trim would leak out and kill the marine life. It was all nonsense. burst into the news in April 1971, when a Florida salvor asserted that she had somehow drifted across the gulf to the Tampa area and that there was danger that the 200 tons of mercury she carried for ballast trim would leak out and kill the marine life. It was all nonsense. U-166 U-166 could not rise and "drift" from her grave and she carried no mercury for ballast trim. Although could not rise and "drift" from her grave and she carried no mercury for ballast trim. Although U-166 U-166 sank in shallow water, sport divers have not been able to find her. Very likely she is buried in silt deposited by the Mississippi River. sank in shallow water, sport divers have not been able to find her. Very likely she is buried in silt deposited by the Mississippi River.

* Pfeffer and some crew returned to Germany to man a new boat. Pfeffer and some crew returned to Germany to man a new boat.

At the time of the award, Lassen's confirmed score was eleven ships for 66,000 tons sunk, plus damage to two tankers. The first tanker, At the time of the award, Lassen's confirmed score was eleven ships for 66,000 tons sunk, plus damage to two tankers. The first tanker, Bidwell Bidwell, was salvaged. The second, Havsten Havsten, was abandoned. Two days later the Italian submarine Tazzoli Tazzoli found found Havsten Havsten and sank her with two torpedoes. and sank her with two torpedoes.

* Combat Flotilla 11, commanded by Hans Cohausz, onetime skipper of Combat Flotilla 11, commanded by Hans Cohausz, onetime skipper of U-A U-A, was formally established in Bergen on June 6, but weeks elapsed before it was fully staffed and operational.

* U-88 U-88, U-255 U-255, U-355 U-355, U-408 U-408, U-457 U-457, U-601 U-601.

* Six destroyers, four corvettes, two submarines, three minesweepers, two antiaircraft gun ships, and four ASW trawlers. Six destroyers, four corvettes, two submarines, three minesweepers, two antiaircraft gun ships, and four ASW trawlers.

Two British heavy cruisers, Two British heavy cruisers, London London and and Norfolk Norfolk; two American heavy cruisers, Tuscaloosa Tuscaloosa and and Wichita Wichita; the British destroyer Somali Somali; and two modern American destroyers, Rowan Rowan and and Wain-wright Wain-wright.

The British carrier The British carrier Victorious Victorious, the battleship Duke of York Duke of York, heavy cruisers Nigeria Nigeria and and Cumberland Cumberland, and twelve destroyers; the American battleship Washington Washington; and two modern American destroyers, Mayrant Mayrant and and Rhind Rhind.

The British submarines The British submarines Sahib Sahib, Seawolf, Sturgeon, Tribune, Trident, Unrivalled, Unshaken Seawolf, Sturgeon, Tribune, Trident, Unrivalled, Unshaken, and Ursula Ursula; the Free French Minerve Minerve; and six Soviet submarines.

* After entering the Denmark Strait unmolested by the Germans, a section of QP 13 accidentally ran into an Allied defensive minefield. The British minesweeper After entering the Denmark Strait unmolested by the Germans, a section of QP 13 accidentally ran into an Allied defensive minefield. The British minesweeper Niger Niger and five big ships totaling about 31,000 tons hit mines, blew up, and sank. One of the lost ships, the Soviet cargo-passenger vessel Rodina, was transporting the wives and families of Soviet diplomats to England. and five big ships totaling about 31,000 tons hit mines, blew up, and sank. One of the lost ships, the Soviet cargo-passenger vessel Rodina, was transporting the wives and families of Soviet diplomats to England.

* A boarding party from A boarding party from U-255 U-255 recovered the papers, which included exact details on the composition of PQ 17, as well as "new signal codebooks for convoys" and "other welcome papers." recovered the papers, which included exact details on the composition of PQ 17, as well as "new signal codebooks for convoys" and "other welcome papers."

Hermann Goring awarded three Hermann Goring awarded three Ritterkreuzes Ritterkreuzes to airmen who engaged in the battle with PQ 17. to airmen who engaged in the battle with PQ 17.

The eleven U-boats deployed against PQ 17 shot a total of seventy-two torpedoes, of which twenty-seven were believed to have hit and exploded. Nine of the eleven boats were credited with sinkings. Reinhardt von Hymmen in The eleven U-boats deployed against PQ 17 shot a total of seventy-two torpedoes, of which twenty-seven were believed to have hit and exploded. Nine of the eleven boats were credited with sinkings. Reinhardt von Hymmen in U-408 U-408 and Heinrich Gollnitz in and Heinrich Gollnitz in U-657 U-657 (who aborted with an oil leak) sank no ships. (who aborted with an oil leak) sank no ships.

Twenty-two of the twenty-four confirmed ships sunk were big freighters, heavily laden with war materiel. Fourteen of the twenty-four were American ships. The lost cargo included 3,350 trucks and vehicles, 430 tanks, 210 aircraft, and about 100,000 tons of other war supplies. About 153 merchant marine officers and men (107 Americans) died in the sinkings or in lifeboats; about 1,300 others (581 Americans) survived. The ships that reached Soviet ports delivered 896 vehicles, 164 tanks, 87 aircraft, and about 57,000 tons of other military cargo. In mounting 202 dive-bomber and torpedo sorties, the Twenty-two of the twenty-four confirmed ships sunk were big freighters, heavily laden with war materiel. Fourteen of the twenty-four were American ships. The lost cargo included 3,350 trucks and vehicles, 430 tanks, 210 aircraft, and about 100,000 tons of other war supplies. About 153 merchant marine officers and men (107 Americans) died in the sinkings or in lifeboats; about 1,300 others (581 Americans) survived. The ships that reached Soviet ports delivered 896 vehicles, 164 tanks, 87 aircraft, and about 57,000 tons of other military cargo. In mounting 202 dive-bomber and torpedo sorties, the Luftwaffe Luftwaffe lost only five aircraft and a few men. The U-boat force incurred no losses. lost only five aircraft and a few men. The U-boat force incurred no losses.

* The first four American-built "jeep" carriers for the Royal Navy had been delayed. As related, during workup in the Caribbean, The first four American-built "jeep" carriers for the Royal Navy had been delayed. As related, during workup in the Caribbean, Archer Archer collided with and sank the Peruvian freighter collided with and sank the Peruvian freighter Brazos Brazos, damaging herself so badly that she had to be towed to the Charleston naval base for repairs. All four had severe teething problems with their newly designed high-performance diesel engines.

* The correct procedure in such cases, Coastal Command headquarters stated, was to continue offensive action by all weapons, in order to keep the U-boat crew below and prevent scuttling until a surface ship arrived. The correct procedure in such cases, Coastal Command headquarters stated, was to continue offensive action by all weapons, in order to keep the U-boat crew below and prevent scuttling until a surface ship arrived.

* The award of the The award of the Ritterkreuz Ritterkreuz to Kraus was apparently part of a propaganda scheme to give recognition to German submariners in the Mediterranean. At the time of the award, Kraus's claimed sinkings on to Kraus was apparently part of a propaganda scheme to give recognition to German submariners in the Mediterranean. At the time of the award, Kraus's claimed sinkings on U-83 U-83 totaled twelve ships for 35,000 tons, including the seven small ships off Palestine. Up to then, he had sunk only one confirmed ship of any size: the 2,000-ton Portuguese freighter totaled twelve ships for 35,000 tons, including the seven small ships off Palestine. Up to then, he had sunk only one confirmed ship of any size: the 2,000-ton Portuguese freighter Corte Real Corte Real, which he stopped in the Atlantic by gun, searched, and deemed to be carrying contraband, then sank with a single torpedo.

Perla Perla yielded some intelligence papers of value but apparently nothing helpful to Allied code-breakers. They were still reading the Italian naval code C-38m but had not broken any German naval codes employed in the Mediterranean area. In August, shortly after yielded some intelligence papers of value but apparently nothing helpful to Allied code-breakers. They were still reading the Italian naval code C-38m but had not broken any German naval codes employed in the Mediterranean area. In August, shortly after Perla Perla's capture, Allied codebreakers turned to the German naval Enigma network Sud (Porpoise), used by German naval commanders and surface ships in the Mediterranean, Balkans, and Black Sea. It proved to be a "relatively uncomplicated prewar machine," which "could be decrypted with no special difficulty," but it provided no cribs for breaking the four-rotor Enigma in use on the Triton (Shark) net in the Atlantic or tactical information of value.

* At the time of the award, Rosenbaum had sunk six confirmed ships for 52,000 tons, including At the time of the award, Rosenbaum had sunk six confirmed ships for 52,000 tons, including Eagle Eagle, the third carrier after Courageous and Ark Royal Ark Royal to be sunk by U-boats. to be sunk by U-boats.

* The ducks The ducks U-9 U-9, U-18 U-18, U-19 U-19, U-20 U-20, U-23 U-23, and U-24 U-24 had been decommissioned and disassembled and laboriously shipped by rail and barge to Galati, Romania, on the Black Sea, where they were reassembled and recommissioned for the purpose of attacking Soviet naval units in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov. had been decommissioned and disassembled and laboriously shipped by rail and barge to Galati, Romania, on the Black Sea, where they were reassembled and recommissioned for the purpose of attacking Soviet naval units in the Black Sea and Sea of Azov.

* At this time, British forces in the Mediterranean sank yet another Italian submarine, Scire. While she was attempting to sneak into Haifa to launch three Chariots (or "human torpedoes") on August 10, the ASW trawler Islay destroyed her. At this time, British forces in the Mediterranean sank yet another Italian submarine, Scire. While she was attempting to sneak into Haifa to launch three Chariots (or "human torpedoes") on August 10, the ASW trawler Islay destroyed her.

Schonder's award also appears to be part of the effort to give Mediterranean U-boats greater recognition. At the time of the award (the third Schonder's award also appears to be part of the effort to give Mediterranean U-boats greater recognition. At the time of the award (the third Ritterkreuz Ritterkreuz won by Mediterranean skippers within two months), Schonder's confirmed sinkings on the duck won by Mediterranean skippers within two months), Schonder's confirmed sinkings on the duck U-58 U-58 and the and the U-77 U-77 were nine ships for about 35,000 tons (including the were nine ships for about 35,000 tons (including the Hunt Hunt-class destroyer Grove Grove) plus the ten sailing ships.

* As related earlier, after he left the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Vogelsang in As related earlier, after he left the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Vogelsang in U-132 U-132 sank the 6,700-ton freighter sank the 6,700-ton freighter Pacific Pioneer Pacific Pioneer of this convoy. of this convoy.

* This action and others in convoy Outbound North 115 are vividly described in Easton's war memoir, This action and others in convoy Outbound North 115 are vividly described in Easton's war memoir, Fifty North Fifty North (1963). (1963).

* At the time of the award, Topp's confirmed score on the duck At the time of the award, Topp's confirmed score on the duck U-57 U-57 and and U-552 U-552 was 34 ships sunk for about 185,000 tons, including the destroyer was 34 ships sunk for about 185,000 tons, including the destroyer Reuben James Reuben James. In ships and tonnage sunk, he stood fourth among all skippers in the war.

* At that time there were forty-eight ASW aircraft based on Iceland: twenty-nine British, ten American, and nine Norwegian. At that time there were forty-eight ASW aircraft based on Iceland: twenty-nine British, ten American, and nine Norwegian.

* The convoy was Reykjavik-United Kingdom 36, consisting of two cruisers and four destroyers escorting four large and important merchant ships. The convoy was Reykjavik-United Kingdom 36, consisting of two cruisers and four destroyers escorting four large and important merchant ships.

A U-tanker could refuel only about thirteen U-boats per voyage. Therefore, about one tanker was needed for efficient operation of each attack group. A U-tanker could refuel only about thirteen U-boats per voyage. Therefore, about one tanker was needed for efficient operation of each attack group.

* At the time of the award, Schnee's claims on the duck At the time of the award, Schnee's claims on the duck U-60 U-60 and the and the U-201 U-201 totaled 29 ships for about 210,000 tons. His confirmed score was 22 ships for about 92,000 tons. totaled 29 ships for about 210,000 tons. His confirmed score was 22 ships for about 92,000 tons.

* At the time of the award, Kals's confirmed score was eighteen ships for about 116,500 tons. At the time of the award, Kals's confirmed score was eighteen ships for about 116,500 tons.

* At the time of the award, his confirmed score on At the time of the award, his confirmed score on U-48 U-48 and and U-109 U-109 was twenty-six and a half ships for 150,000 tons. was twenty-six and a half ships for 150,000 tons.

* The assertion in some American records that The assertion in some American records that U-751 U-751 planted a minefield at Charleston is obviously in error. planted a minefield at Charleston is obviously in error.

The convergence of six U-boats (two IXs, four VIIs) in the area near Outbound South 34 suggests that Donitz had prior knowledge of its position and that Bigalk in The convergence of six U-boats (two IXs, four VIIs) in the area near Outbound South 34 suggests that Donitz had prior knowledge of its position and that Bigalk in U-751 U-751, who carried torpedoes as well as mines, was part of a special operation against this convoy. However, no records have come to light to confirm this possibility.

*A hard, hazardous task, accomplished by floating buoyed torpedoes from one boat to the other.

After Kretschmer and Topp, Suhren was the third skipper to earn Swords to his After Kretschmer and Topp, Suhren was the third skipper to earn Swords to his Ritterkreuz. Ritterkreuz. Uniquely, he had won his Uniquely, he had won his Ritterkreuz Ritterkreuz while serving as first watch officer of the record-breaking while serving as first watch officer of the record-breaking U-48 U-48 under Herbert Schultze, Hans Rosing, and Heinrich Bleichrodt. As captain of the under Herbert Schultze, Hans Rosing, and Heinrich Bleichrodt. As captain of the U-564 U-564 for five patrols, Suhren had sunk 18 ships for about 95,000 tons. for five patrols, Suhren had sunk 18 ships for about 95,000 tons.

* At the time of the award, Thurmann's confirmed score was fourteen ships for 80,237 tons. At the time of the award, Thurmann's confirmed score was fourteen ships for 80,237 tons.

* The weapon, which was not adopted, had a 464-pound TNT warhead. The majority of airmen preferred to carry a greater load of the smaller, lighter, Mark XVII depth charge with a Torpex warhead. The weapon, which was not adopted, had a 464-pound TNT warhead. The majority of airmen preferred to carry a greater load of the smaller, lighter, Mark XVII depth charge with a Torpex warhead.

* At the time of the award, Krech's confirmed score was fifteen ships for 104,593 tons, including two British warships: the corvette At the time of the award, Krech's confirmed score was fifteen ships for 104,593 tons, including two British warships: the corvette Gladiolus Gladiolus and the ASW trawler and the ASW trawler Bedfordshire. Bedfordshire.

U-43, U-174 U-43, U-174, and U-176. U-176.

* At the time of the award, Piening's confirmed score was 20 ships (four big tankers) for 94,635 tons. At the time of the award, Piening's confirmed score was 20 ships (four big tankers) for 94,635 tons.

* At the time of the award, Scholtz's confirmed score was 26 ships for 130,677 tons, including the At the time of the award, Scholtz's confirmed score was 26 ships for 130,677 tons, including the Brines Brines, which is not included in most German sources. His transfer to shore duty left two skippers who wore Oak Leaves in command of Atlantic U-boats: Bleichrodt in U-109 U-109 and Mutzelburg in and Mutzelburg in U-203 U-203.

* Originally this task had been assigned to three Type VIIs of the July group, but they became involved in convoy battles and were eventually redirected to the Caribbean. Originally this task had been assigned to three Type VIIs of the July group, but they became involved in convoy battles and were eventually redirected to the Caribbean.

* Chatham Chatham was the second American "troopship" to be lost in the war after the was the second American "troopship" to be lost in the war after the Cherokee. Cherokee. Thirteen men died in the sinking. Thirteen men died in the sinking.

Notwithstanding Admiral King's reluctance to give medals for saving one's ship, Moncy was awarded a Navy Cross. Notwithstanding Admiral King's reluctance to give medals for saving one's ship, Moncy was awarded a Navy Cross.

* The 7,300-ton tanker The 7,300-ton tanker Petrofuel Petrofuel detonated a mine in Graf's field off the mouth of the Chesapeake but was not damaged. Neither minefield produced any sinkings. Both fields were discovered and swept by the Americans. detonated a mine in Graf's field off the mouth of the Chesapeake but was not damaged. Neither minefield produced any sinkings. Both fields were discovered and swept by the Americans.

* The survivors of The survivors of Antonico Antonico asserted that Wiebe shot at them in the lifeboats, killing six and wounding ten men. These charges were brought against Donitz at his Nuremberg trial but to small effect. Donitz responded that the survivors had doubtless drifted into gunfire aimed at the ship and that had Wiebe intended to wipe out the survivors, as charged, he would not have departed the scene in a mere twenty minutes. asserted that Wiebe shot at them in the lifeboats, killing six and wounding ten men. These charges were brought against Donitz at his Nuremberg trial but to small effect. Donitz responded that the survivors had doubtless drifted into gunfire aimed at the ship and that had Wiebe intended to wipe out the survivors, as charged, he would not have departed the scene in a mere twenty minutes.

* Bargaining for Supremacy Bargaining for Supremacy (1977). (1977).

Among other forces, four Army divisions: 1st, 5th, and 34th Infantry and 1st Armored. The number of American military personnel disembarked in the British Isles in this period was roughly 157,000. (See tables in Behrens, p. 283, and Bykofsky and Larson, p. 102.) The thirteen men lost on the troopship Among other forces, four Army divisions: 1st, 5th, and 34th Infantry and 1st Armored. The number of American military personnel disembarked in the British Isles in this period was roughly 157,000. (See tables in Behrens, p. 283, and Bykofsky and Larson, p. 102.) The thirteen men lost on the troopship Chatham Chatham were outbound from Nova Scotia to Greenland. were outbound from Nova Scotia to Greenland.

* Among other forces, six American Army divisions: Americal, 27th, 32nd, 37th, 40th, and 41st Infantry, and the Marine Corps 1st Division. Among other forces, six American Army divisions: Americal, 27th, 32nd, 37th, 40th, and 41st Infantry, and the Marine Corps 1st Division.

* See See Appendix 4 Appendix 4 and Plate 12. and Plate 12.

From From U-94, U-162, U-352, U-512 U-94, U-162, U-352, U-512, and U-701. U-701.

* See See Appendix 17 Appendix 17.

Includes one tanker sunk by Includes one tanker sunk by U-512 U-512 and two by and two by U-515 U-515 in early September. in early September.

* The 43,000 shipbuilders in the British Isles produced a total of about 1.3 million tons of new merchant ships in 1942; the Canadians about half a million. The 43,000 shipbuilders in the British Isles produced a total of about 1.3 million tons of new merchant ships in 1942; the Canadians about half a million.

BOOKS BY CLAY BLAIRNONFICTION

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Diving for Pleasure and Treasure

Always Another Dawn, with A. Scott Crossfield A. Scott Crossfield

The Voyage of Nina II, for Robert Marx

The Strange Case of James Earl Ray Survive!

Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War Against Japan

The Search for JFK, with Joan Blair

MacArthur Combat Patrol

Return From the River Kwai, with Joan Blair

A General's Life, with Omar N. Bradley

Ridgway's Paratroopers