83 J. Wolffe, 'Contentious Christians: Protestant-Catholic Conflict since the Reformation', in Wolffe (ed.), 97-128, at 111. Wolffe points out that anti-popery did not stop the new Republic forming a military alliance with the Catholic French monarchy against the British. J. Wolffe, 'Contentious Christians: Protestant-Catholic Conflict since the Reformation', in Wolffe (ed.), 97-128, at 111. Wolffe points out that anti-popery did not stop the new Republic forming a military alliance with the Catholic French monarchy against the British.

84 H. Morrison, H. Morrison, John Witherspoon and the Founding of the American Republic John Witherspoon and the Founding of the American Republic (Notre Dame, IN, 2005). (Notre Dame, IN, 2005).

85 A. Phelps Stokes, A. Phelps Stokes, Church and State in the United States Church and State in the United States (3 vols., New York, 1950), I, 307-8. (3 vols., New York, 1950), I, 307-8.

86 Butler, Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith Awash in a Sea of Faith, 208.

87 Rhoden, Rhoden, Revolutionary Anglicanism Revolutionary Anglicanism, 106-7.

88 Handy, 138. Handy, 138.

89 D. L. Holmes, D. L. Holmes, The Faiths of the Founding Fathers The Faiths of the Founding Fathers (Oxford and New York, 2006), 53-7, 79-89; quotation at 87. (Oxford and New York, 2006), 53-7, 79-89; quotation at 87.

90 Ibid., 59-71; J. J. Ellis, Ibid., 59-71; J. J. Ellis, His Excellency: George Washington His Excellency: George Washington (New York, 2004), esp. 45, 269. (New York, 2004), esp. 45, 269.

91 I. Kramnick and R. L. Moore, 'The G.o.dless Const.i.tution', in T. S. Engeman and M. P. Zuckert (eds.), I. Kramnick and R. L. Moore, 'The G.o.dless Const.i.tution', in T. S. Engeman and M. P. Zuckert (eds.), Protestantism and the American Founding Protestantism and the American Founding (Notre Dame, IN, 2004), 129-42; J. Meacham, (Notre Dame, IN, 2004), 129-42; J. Meacham, American Gospel: G.o.d, the Founding Fathers, and the Making of a Nation American Gospel: G.o.d, the Founding Fathers, and the Making of a Nation (New York, 2006), 80-83. See also F. Church, (New York, 2006), 80-83. See also F. Church, So Help Me G.o.d: The Founding Fathers and the First Great Battle over Church and State So Help Me G.o.d: The Founding Fathers and the First Great Battle over Church and State (Orlando, FL, 2007). (Orlando, FL, 2007).

92 The rise and fall of American Church establishments are carefully discussed in L. W. Levy, The rise and fall of American Church establishments are carefully discussed in L. W. Levy, The Establishment Clause: Religion and the First Amendment The Establishment Clause: Religion and the First Amendment (New York and London, 1986), esp. Chs. 1-3. (New York and London, 1986), esp. Chs. 1-3.

93 C. S. Lewis, ed. W. Hooper, C. S. Lewis, ed. W. Hooper, G.o.d in the Dock G.o.d in the Dock (London, 1979), 9, 100: Ch. 12, 'G.o.d in the Dock' was originally published as 'Difficulties in Presenting the Christian Faith to Modern Unbelievers', (London, 1979), 9, 100: Ch. 12, 'G.o.d in the Dock' was originally published as 'Difficulties in Presenting the Christian Faith to Modern Unbelievers', Lumen Vitae Lumen Vitae, 3 (September 1948), 421-6.

PART VII: G.o.d IN THE DOCK (1492 - PRESENT).

21: Enlightenment: Ally or Enemy? (1492-1815) 1 On the misbehaving Christ Child, see J. Nelson Crouch, 'Misbehaving G.o.d: The Case of the Christ Child in MS Laud Misc. 108 "Infancy of Jesus Christ" ', in B. Wheeler (ed.), On the misbehaving Christ Child, see J. Nelson Crouch, 'Misbehaving G.o.d: The Case of the Christ Child in MS Laud Misc. 108 "Infancy of Jesus Christ" ', in B. Wheeler (ed.), Mindful Spirit in Late Medieval Literature: Essays in Honor of Elizabeth D. Kirk Mindful Spirit in Late Medieval Literature: Essays in Honor of Elizabeth D. Kirk (Basingstoke, 2006), 31-43. (Basingstoke, 2006), 31-43.

2 E. Rummel, E. Rummel, The Confessionalization of Humanism in Reformation Germany The Confessionalization of Humanism in Reformation Germany (Oxford, 2000), 90-101. (Oxford, 2000), 90-101.

3 C. Webster, C. Webster, Paracelsus: Medicine, Magic and Mission at the End of Time Paracelsus: Medicine, Magic and Mission at the End of Time (New Haven and London, 2008). (New Haven and London, 2008).

4 D. Stevenson, D. Stevenson, The Origins of Freemasonry: Scotland's Century, 1590-1710 The Origins of Freemasonry: Scotland's Century, 1590-1710 (Cambridge, 1988), esp. 76 and Ch. 3. (Cambridge, 1988), esp. 76 and Ch. 3.

5 F. Yates, F. Yates, The Rosicrucian Enlightenment The Rosicrucian Enlightenment (London, 1972), esp. Ch. 4. (London, 1972), esp. Ch. 4.

6 H. Hotson, H. Hotson, Johann Heinrich Alsted, 1588-1638: Between Renaissance, Reformation and Universal Reform Johann Heinrich Alsted, 1588-1638: Between Renaissance, Reformation and Universal Reform (Oxford, 2000), esp. Ch. 5; H. Hotson, (Oxford, 2000), esp. Ch. 5; H. Hotson, Paradise Postponed: Johann Heinrich Alsted and the Birth of Calvinist Millenarianism Paradise Postponed: Johann Heinrich Alsted and the Birth of Calvinist Millenarianism (Dordrecht, 2000). (Dordrecht, 2000).

7 S. Mandelbrote, 'John Dury and the Practice of Irenicism', in N. Aston (ed.), S. Mandelbrote, 'John Dury and the Practice of Irenicism', in N. Aston (ed.), Religious Change in Europe 1650-1914: Essays for John McManners Religious Change in Europe 1650-1914: Essays for John McManners (Oxford, 1997), 41 - 58. (Oxford, 1997), 41 - 58.

8 D. S. Katz, D. S. Katz, Philosemitism and the Readmission of the Jews to England, 1603-1655 Philosemitism and the Readmission of the Jews to England, 1603-1655 (Oxford, 1982), esp. 235-8, 241. (Oxford, 1982), esp. 235-8, 241.

9 S. D. Sn.o.belen, ' "The true frame of nature": Isaac Newton, Heresy and the Reformation of Natural Philosophy', in J. Brooke and I. Maclean (eds.), S. D. Sn.o.belen, ' "The true frame of nature": Isaac Newton, Heresy and the Reformation of Natural Philosophy', in J. Brooke and I. Maclean (eds.), Heterodoxy in Early Modern Science and Religion Heterodoxy in Early Modern Science and Religion (Oxford, 2005), 223-62; quotation from Newton's unpublished (Oxford, 2005), 223-62; quotation from Newton's unpublished Theologiae gentilis origines philosophicae Theologiae gentilis origines philosophicae ('Philosophical origins of Gentile Theology') from the 1680s, ibid., 245. See also R. S. Westfall, ('Philosophical origins of Gentile Theology') from the 1680s, ibid., 245. See also R. S. Westfall, Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton (Cambridge, 1980). (Cambridge, 1980).

10 H. Hotson, 'The Instauration of the Image of G.o.d in Man: Humanist Anthropology, Encyclopaedic Pedagogy, Baconianism and Universal Reform', in M. Pelling and S. Mandelbrote (eds.), H. Hotson, 'The Instauration of the Image of G.o.d in Man: Humanist Anthropology, Encyclopaedic Pedagogy, Baconianism and Universal Reform', in M. Pelling and S. Mandelbrote (eds.), The Practice of Reform in Health, Medicine and Science, 1500- 2000 The Practice of Reform in Health, Medicine and Science, 1500- 2000 (Aldershot, 2005), 1-21, at 4. (Aldershot, 2005), 1-21, at 4.

11 F. Bacon, F. Bacon, Essayes, Essayes, 'Of Atheisme' (London, 1879, reproduction of 1625 text), 64. 'Of Atheisme' (London, 1879, reproduction of 1625 text), 64.

12 MacCulloch, 610-11. MacCulloch, 610-11.

13 J. Arrizabalaga, J. Henderson and R. French, J. Arrizabalaga, J. Henderson and R. French, The Great Pox: The French Disease in Renaissance Europe The Great Pox: The French Disease in Renaissance Europe (New Haven and London, 1997), Ch. 4. (New Haven and London, 1997), Ch. 4.

14 C. S. Dixon, 'Popular Astrology and Lutheran Propaganda in Reformation Germany', C. S. Dixon, 'Popular Astrology and Lutheran Propaganda in Reformation Germany', History History, 84 (1999), 403-18; on astrology, E. Cameron, 'Philipp Melanchthon: Image and Substance', JEH JEH, 48 (1997), 705-22, at 711-12, and Calvin's critique, J. Calvin, ed. J. T. McNeill and F. L. Battles, Inst.i.tutes of the Christian Religion Inst.i.tutes of the Christian Religion (2 vols., Philadelphia: Library of Christian Cla.s.sics XX, XXI, 1960), 201 [ (2 vols., Philadelphia: Library of Christian Cla.s.sics XX, XXI, 1960), 201 [Inst.i.tutes I.xvi.3]. I.xvi.3].

15 On the leadership and crucial role of Sephardic crypto-Jews at the College de Guyenne, P. J. McGinnis and A. H. Williamson (eds.), On the leadership and crucial role of Sephardic crypto-Jews at the College de Guyenne, P. J. McGinnis and A. H. Williamson (eds.), George Buchanan: The Political Poetry George Buchanan: The Political Poetry (Edinburgh, 1995), 6-7, 16-18, 313. (Edinburgh, 1995), 6-7, 16-18, 313.

16 J. Friedman, 'The Reformation in Alien Eyes: Jewish Perceptions of Christian Troubles', J. Friedman, 'The Reformation in Alien Eyes: Jewish Perceptions of Christian Troubles', SCJ SCJ, 13/1 (Spring 1983), 23-40.

17 Z. David, 'Hajek, Dubravius and the Jews: A Contrast in Sixteenth-century Czech Historiography', Z. David, 'Hajek, Dubravius and the Jews: A Contrast in Sixteenth-century Czech Historiography', SCJ SCJ, 27 (1996), 997-1013, at 998, 1009.

18 J. Friedman, 'Unitarians and New Christians in Sixteenth-century Europe', J. Friedman, 'Unitarians and New Christians in Sixteenth-century Europe', ARG ARG, 81 (1996), 9-37.

19 Cf. discussion of sodomy in MacCulloch, 620-29. Cf. discussion of sodomy in MacCulloch, 620-29.

20 J. Edwards, 'Portugal and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain', in J. Edwards, 'Portugal and the Expulsion of the Jews from Spain', in Medievo hispano: estudios in memoriam del Prof. Derek W. Lomax Medievo hispano: estudios in memoriam del Prof. Derek W. Lomax (Madrid, 1995), 121-39, at 137. (Madrid, 1995), 121-39, at 137.

21 B. J. Kaplan, ' "Remnants of the Papal Yoke": Apathy and Opposition in the Dutch Reformation', B. J. Kaplan, ' "Remnants of the Papal Yoke": Apathy and Opposition in the Dutch Reformation', SCJ SCJ, 25 (1994), 653-68.

22 A. Fix, A. Fix, Prophecy and Reason: The Dutch Collegiants in the Early Enlightenment Prophecy and Reason: The Dutch Collegiants in the Early Enlightenment (Princeton, 1991). (Princeton, 1991).

23 D. M. Swetsc.h.i.n.ki, D. M. Swetsc.h.i.n.ki, Reluctant Cosmopolitans: The Portuguese Jews of Seventeenth-century Amsterdam Reluctant Cosmopolitans: The Portuguese Jews of Seventeenth-century Amsterdam (London, 2000). (London, 2000).

24 J. I. Israel, J. I. Israel, Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650-1750 Radical Enlightenment: Philosophy and the Making of Modernity 1650-1750 (Oxford, 2001), 159-74. (Oxford, 2001), 159-74.

25 B. Spinoza, tr. S. Shirley, with introd. by B. S. Gregory, B. Spinoza, tr. S. Shirley, with introd. by B. S. Gregory, Tractatus Theologico-Politicus Tractatus Theologico-Politicus (2nd edn, Leiden, 1991), 51 [Preface]. (2nd edn, Leiden, 1991), 51 [Preface].

26 B. Spinoza, ed. M. L. Morgan and tr. S. Shirley, B. Spinoza, ed. M. L. Morgan and tr. S. Shirley, The Essential Spinoza: The Essential Spinoza: Ethics Ethics and Related Writings and Related Writings (Indianapolis, 2006), 53 [Pt II, proposition 43]. (Indianapolis, 2006), 53 [Pt II, proposition 43].

27 M. Stewart, M. Stewart, The Courtier and the Heretic: Leibniz, Spinoza and the Fate of G.o.d in the Modern World The Courtier and the Heretic: Leibniz, Spinoza and the Fate of G.o.d in the Modern World (New Haven and London, 2005), esp. 58-60, 65-7. (New Haven and London, 2005), esp. 58-60, 65-7.

28 P. Bayle, P. Bayle, Miscellaneous Reflections, occasion'd by the Comet which appear'd in December 1680 . . . Miscellaneous Reflections, occasion'd by the Comet which appear'd in December 1680 . . . (2 vols., London, 1708 [first French edn 1680]), II, 349-51. (2 vols., London, 1708 [first French edn 1680]), II, 349-51.

29 J. Overhoff, 'The Theology of Thomas Hobbes's J. Overhoff, 'The Theology of Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan Leviathan', JEH JEH, 51 (2000), 527-55. For a seminal study of Hobbes and his centrality to theological revision and anticlericalism, see J. A. I. Champion, The Pillars of Priestcraft Shaken: The Church of England and Its Enemies 1660-1730 The Pillars of Priestcraft Shaken: The Church of England and Its Enemies 1660-1730 (Cambridge, 1992). (Cambridge, 1992).

30 N. Keene, ' "A two-edged sword": Biblical Criticism and the New Testament Canon in Early Modern England', in Hessayon and Keene (eds.), 94-115, at 104-6, and on Mill, 109. On Laodiceans, see Colossians 4.16. To minimize the embarra.s.sment of this text, the reference is translated in most Bibles as referring to a letter N. Keene, ' "A two-edged sword": Biblical Criticism and the New Testament Canon in Early Modern England', in Hessayon and Keene (eds.), 94-115, at 104-6, and on Mill, 109. On Laodiceans, see Colossians 4.16. To minimize the embarra.s.sment of this text, the reference is translated in most Bibles as referring to a letter from from the Laodiceans, though that does not really solve the canonical problem: see comment in E. Schweizer, the Laodiceans, though that does not really solve the canonical problem: see comment in E. Schweizer, The Letter to the Colossians The Letter to the Colossians (London, 1982), 242 and n. 18. (London, 1982), 242 and n. 18.

31 P. Almond, 'Adam, Pre-Adamites and Extra-terrestrial Beings in Early Modern Europe', P. Almond, 'Adam, Pre-Adamites and Extra-terrestrial Beings in Early Modern Europe', JRH JRH, 30 (2006), 163-74, esp. 164, 167; see also R. H. Popkin, Isaac la Peyrere (1596- 1676): His Life, Work and Influence Isaac la Peyrere (1596- 1676): His Life, Work and Influence (Leiden, 1987). (Leiden, 1987).

32 Israel, Israel, Radical Enlightenment Radical Enlightenment, 695-700.

33 M. Martini, SJ, M. Martini, SJ, Sinicae Historiae Decas Prima Sinicae Historiae Decas Prima (1658), see W. Poole, 'The Genesis Narrative in the Circle of Robert Hooke and Francis Lodwick', in Hessayon and Keene (eds.), 41-57, at 48. (1658), see W. Poole, 'The Genesis Narrative in the Circle of Robert Hooke and Francis Lodwick', in Hessayon and Keene (eds.), 41-57, at 48.

34 Almond, 'Adam, Pre-Adamites and Extra-terrestrial Beings in Early Modern Europe', 163 - 74. Almond, 'Adam, Pre-Adamites and Extra-terrestrial Beings in Early Modern Europe', 163 - 74.

35 A. Hamilton and F. Richard, A. Hamilton and F. Richard, Andre du Ryer and Oriental Studies in 17th Century France Andre du Ryer and Oriental Studies in 17th Century France (Oxford, 2004), 111-12. (Oxford, 2004), 111-12.

36 D. Gange, 'Religion and Science in Late 19th-century British Egyptology', D. Gange, 'Religion and Science in Late 19th-century British Egyptology', HJ HJ, 49 (2006), 1083-1104, at 1090.

37 First published in First published in The Spectator The Spectator, no. 465 (1712). The original text, Ps. 19.1-6, is redolent of the 'Wisdom' literary tradition in the Tanakh (see p. 67): naturally a congenial ethos for Addison.

38 A. Cunningham and O. P. Grell, A. Cunningham and O. P. Grell, The Four Hors.e.m.e.n of the Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine and Death in Reformation Europe The Four Hors.e.m.e.n of the Apocalypse: Religion, War, Famine and Death in Reformation Europe (Cambridge, 2000), 205, 243. (Cambridge, 2000), 205, 243.

39 J. de Vries, J. de Vries, The Industrious Revolution: Consumer Behavior and the Household Economy, 1650 to the Present The Industrious Revolution: Consumer Behavior and the Household Economy, 1650 to the Present (Cambridge, 2008), esp. 40-58. A brilliant portrait of the effect on the seventeenth-century Netherlands is S. Schama, (Cambridge, 2008), esp. 40-58. A brilliant portrait of the effect on the seventeenth-century Netherlands is S. Schama, The Embarra.s.sment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age The Embarra.s.sment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (London, 1987), esp. Ch. 5. (London, 1987), esp. Ch. 5.

40 A significant though little-remarked feature of the A significant though little-remarked feature of the Messiah Messiah is the virtually complete absence of Mary the Mother of Jesus from its text. This silence was of course predictable in anti-Catholic Georgian England, and in is the virtually complete absence of Mary the Mother of Jesus from its text. This silence was of course predictable in anti-Catholic Georgian England, and in Messiah Messiah's ma.s.sive popularity with nineteenth-century Protestant Nonconformist choirs Mary would have continued to be something of a problem.

41 P. Ihalainen, P. Ihalainen, Protestant Nations Redefined: Changing Perceptions of National Ident.i.ty in the Rhetoric of the English, Dutch and Swedish Public Churches, 1685-1772 Protestant Nations Redefined: Changing Perceptions of National Ident.i.ty in the Rhetoric of the English, Dutch and Swedish Public Churches, 1685-1772 (Leiden, 2005), esp. 579-99. (Leiden, 2005), esp. 579-99.

42 G. Ryle, G. Ryle, The Concept of Mind The Concept of Mind (London, 1949), 17-24. (London, 1949), 17-24.

43 J. Locke, J. Locke, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (Oxford, 1975; first published 1690), 525, [Bk IV, Ch. 1]. (Oxford, 1975; first published 1690), 525, [Bk IV, Ch. 1].

44 D. Hume, 'Of Commerce' (1752), qu. M. Berg, 'In Pursuit of Luxury: Global History and British Consumer Goods in the Eighteenth Century', D. Hume, 'Of Commerce' (1752), qu. M. Berg, 'In Pursuit of Luxury: Global History and British Consumer Goods in the Eighteenth Century', PP PP, 182 (February 2004), 85-142, at 130.

45 A. Fletcher, A. Fletcher, Gender, s.e.x and Subordination in England 1500-1800 Gender, s.e.x and Subordination in England 1500-1800 (New Haven and London, 1995), esp. Pt III. (New Haven and London, 1995), esp. Pt III.

46 On the Societies for the Reformation of Manners, see p. 748. For general discussion, see R. Norton, On the Societies for the Reformation of Manners, see p. 748. For general discussion, see R. Norton, Mother Clap's Molly House: The Gay Subculture in England 1700-1830 Mother Clap's Molly House: The Gay Subculture in England 1700-1830 (London, 1992); T. van der Meer, 'The Persecutions of Sodomites in Early Eighteenth-century Amsterdam: Changing Perceptions of Sodomy', in K. Gerard and G. Hekma (eds.), (London, 1992); T. van der Meer, 'The Persecutions of Sodomites in Early Eighteenth-century Amsterdam: Changing Perceptions of Sodomy', in K. Gerard and G. Hekma (eds.), The Pursuit of Sodomy: Male h.o.m.os.e.xuality in Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe The Pursuit of Sodomy: Male h.o.m.os.e.xuality in Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe (Binghamton, 1989), 263-309. It would probably be taking conspiracy theory too far to point out that the dominant political figure of the two nations in that decade, William III, was subject to much gossip about his s.e.xuality: see (Binghamton, 1989), 263-309. It would probably be taking conspiracy theory too far to point out that the dominant political figure of the two nations in that decade, William III, was subject to much gossip about his s.e.xuality: see ODNB ODNB s.v. William III and II (1650 - 1702): 'Marriage and s.e.xuality'. s.v. William III and II (1650 - 1702): 'Marriage and s.e.xuality'.

47 Figures quoted by James D. Tracy, in review of W. Bergsma, Figures quoted by James D. Tracy, in review of W. Bergsma, Tussen Gideonsbende en publieke kerk: een studie over gereformeerd Protestantisme in Friesland, 1580-1610 Tussen Gideonsbende en publieke kerk: een studie over gereformeerd Protestantisme in Friesland, 1580-1610 (Hilversum, 1999), in (Hilversum, 1999), in SCJ SCJ, 32 (2001), 893.

48 P. Crawford, P. Crawford, Women and Religion in England, 1500-1720 Women and Religion in England, 1500-1720 (London and New York, 1993), 143. (London and New York, 1993), 143.

49 MacCulloch, 167-8, 657-9. MacCulloch, 167-8, 657-9.

50 P. Matheson, P. Matheson, The Imaginative World of the Reformation The Imaginative World of the Reformation (Edinburgh, 2000), 130. (Edinburgh, 2000), 130.

51 On Mather, P. Bonomi, On Mather, P. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society and Politics in Colonial America Under the Cope of Heaven: Religion, Society and Politics in Colonial America (New York and Oxford, 1986), 113. Anon. [R. Allestree], (New York and Oxford, 1986), 113. Anon. [R. Allestree], The Ladies Calling The Ladies Calling (12th edn, Oxford, 1727; first published 1673), 107, 126, 152. (12th edn, Oxford, 1727; first published 1673), 107, 126, 152.

52 MacCulloch, 609 - 11. MacCulloch, 609 - 11.

53 M. Astell, M. Astell, Some Reflections upon Marriage Some Reflections upon Marriage (4th edn, London, 1730; first published 1700), Appendix, 139; M. Astell, (4th edn, London, 1730; first published 1700), Appendix, 139; M. Astell, A Serious Proposal to the Ladies A Serious Proposal to the Ladies (4th edn, London, 1697; first published 1694), 14. I am grateful to Sarah Apetrei for our discussions on these texts. (4th edn, London, 1697; first published 1694), 14. I am grateful to Sarah Apetrei for our discussions on these texts.

54 J. Wesley, J. Wesley, Primitive Physick: or an easy and natural Method of curing most Diseases Primitive Physick: or an easy and natural Method of curing most Diseases (London, 1747), Preface, ix-x, xviii. See J. Cule, 'The Rev. John Wesley M.A. (Oxon.), 1703-1791: "The Naked Empiricist" and Orthodox Medicine', (London, 1747), Preface, ix-x, xviii. See J. Cule, 'The Rev. John Wesley M.A. (Oxon.), 1703-1791: "The Naked Empiricist" and Orthodox Medicine', Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, 45 (1990), 41-63.

55 C. McC. Weis and F. Pottle (eds.), C. McC. Weis and F. Pottle (eds.), Boswell in Extremes 1776-8 Boswell in Extremes 1776-8 (London, 1971), 12-13. (London, 1971), 12-13.

56 I. Rivers, 'Responses to Hume on Religion by Anglicans and Dissenters', I. Rivers, 'Responses to Hume on Religion by Anglicans and Dissenters', JEH JEH, 52 (2001) 675-95; quotation from the Rev. Joseph Priestley at 695.

57 A fine treatment of the Catholic Enlightenment and eighteenth-century efforts at Church reform is O. Chadwick, A fine treatment of the Catholic Enlightenment and eighteenth-century efforts at Church reform is O. Chadwick, The Popes and European Revolution The Popes and European Revolution (Oxford, 1981), Ch. 6. (Oxford, 1981), Ch. 6.

58 Ibid., 247-8, 256. Ibid., 247-8, 256.

59 B. Chedozeau, B. Chedozeau, Choeur clos, choeur ouvert: de l'eglise medievale a l'eglise tridentine (France, XVIe-XVIIIe siecle) Choeur clos, choeur ouvert: de l'eglise medievale a l'eglise tridentine (France, XVIe-XVIIIe siecle) (Paris, 1998). (Paris, 1998).

60 J. Swann, 'Disgrace without Dishonour: The Internal Exile of French Magistrates in the Eighteenth century', J. Swann, 'Disgrace without Dishonour: The Internal Exile of French Magistrates in the Eighteenth century', PP PP, 195 (May 2007), 87-126, at 99.

61 D. G. Thompson, D. G. Thompson, A Modern Persecution: Breton Jesuits under the Suppression of 1762- 1814 A Modern Persecution: Breton Jesuits under the Suppression of 1762- 1814 (Oxford, 1999), and D. Van Kley, (Oxford, 1999), and D. Van Kley, The Jansenists and the Expulsion of the Jesuits from France, 1757-1765 The Jansenists and the Expulsion of the Jesuits from France, 1757-1765 (New Haven and London, 1975). (New Haven and London, 1975).

62 J. McManners, J. McManners, Church and Society in Eighteenth-century France Church and Society in Eighteenth-century France (2 vols., Oxford, 1998), II, 314, 320-23, 337-41. (2 vols., Oxford, 1998), II, 314, 320-23, 337-41.

63 An engaging recent study is R. Pearson, An engaging recent study is R. Pearson, Voltaire Almighty: A Life in Pursuit of Freedom Voltaire Almighty: A Life in Pursuit of Freedom (London, 2005): see esp. 404-5. (London, 2005): see esp. 404-5.

64 F. Bessire, F. Bessire, La Bible dans la correspondance de Voltaire La Bible dans la correspondance de Voltaire (Oxford, 1999), esp. 10-13, 226-8. (Oxford, 1999), esp. 10-13, 226-8.

65 P. Blom, P. Blom, Encyclopedie: The Triumph of Reason in an Unreasonable Age Encyclopedie: The Triumph of Reason in an Unreasonable Age (London, 2004), esp. 54, 94-8, 143, 151-4. For a view of Mallet treating him as an ultra-conservative accepted by the editors of the (London, 2004), esp. 54, 94-8, 143, 151-4. For a view of Mallet treating him as an ultra-conservative accepted by the editors of the Encyclopedie Encyclopedie to save themselves from ecclesiastical repression, see W. E. Rex, ' "Arche de Noe" and Other Religious Articles by Abbe Mallet in the to save themselves from ecclesiastical repression, see W. E. Rex, ' "Arche de Noe" and Other Religious Articles by Abbe Mallet in the Encyclopedie Encyclopedie', Eighteenth-Century Studies Eighteenth-Century Studies, 9 (1976), 333-52.

66 J.-J. Rousseau, ed. M. Cranston, J.-J. Rousseau, ed. M. Cranston, The Social Contract The Social Contract [ [Contrat social ou Principes du droit politique] (London, 1968; originally published 1763), 64 [Bk 1, Ch. 7].

67 D. Edmonds and J. Eidenow, D. Edmonds and J. Eidenow, Rousseau's Dog: Two Great Thinkers at War in the Age of Enlightenment Rousseau's Dog: Two Great Thinkers at War in the Age of Enlightenment (London, 2006), esp. 221-3, 335-42. (London, 2006), esp. 221-3, 335-42.

68 Text in J. Schmidt (ed.), Text in J. Schmidt (ed.), What is Enlightenment? Eighteenth-century Answers and Twentieth-century Questions What is Enlightenment? Eighteenth-century Answers and Twentieth-century Questions (Berkeley, CA, 1996), 58-64, at 58. (Berkeley, CA, 1996), 58-64, at 58.

69 I. Kant, ed. P. Guyer and A. W. Wood, I. Kant, ed. P. Guyer and A. W. Wood, Critique of Pure Reason Critique of Pure Reason (Cambridge, 1998), 117 [preface to 2nd edn, 1787]. (Cambridge, 1998), 117 [preface to 2nd edn, 1787].

70 D. G. Steinmetz, D. G. Steinmetz, Reformers in the Wings: From Geiler Von Kaysersberg to Theodore Beza Reformers in the Wings: From Geiler Von Kaysersberg to Theodore Beza (Oxford, 2001), Ch. 8. (Oxford, 2001), Ch. 8.

71 An excellent concise account is D. Beales, An excellent concise account is D. Beales, Prosperity and Plunder: European Catholic Monasteries in the Age of Revolution, 1650-1815 Prosperity and Plunder: European Catholic Monasteries in the Age of Revolution, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, 2003), 143-68. (Cambridge, 2003), 143-68.

72 Chadwick, Chadwick, The Popes and European Revolution The Popes and European Revolution, 385-90, and cf. other exceptions mostly in the Protestant British Empire, ibid., 377.

73 Beales, Beales, Prosperity and Plunder Prosperity and Plunder, 210-28.

74 P. Higgonet, 'Terror, Trauma and the "Young Marx" Explanation of Jacobin Politics', P. Higgonet, 'Terror, Trauma and the "Young Marx" Explanation of Jacobin Politics', PP PP, 191 (May 2006), 121-64, at 155-6.

75 McManners, McManners, Church and Society in Eighteenth-century France Church and Society in Eighteenth-century France, 698-701, 726-7.

76 Burleigh, 58. Burleigh, 58.

77 D. Andress, D. Andress, The French Revolution and the People The French Revolution and the People (London, 2004), esp. 139-41, and for what follows. (London, 2004), esp. 139-41, and for what follows.

78 Burleigh, 87-8, 102-5. Burleigh, 87-8, 102-5.

79 An excellent account is still E. E. Y. Hales, An excellent account is still E. E. Y. Hales, Napoleon and the Pope: The Story of Napoleon and Pius VII Napoleon and the Pope: The Story of Napoleon and Pius VII (London, 1961). (London, 1961).

80 S. Hazareesingh, S. Hazareesingh, The Saint-Napoleon: Celebrations of Sovereignty in 19th-century France The Saint-Napoleon: Celebrations of Sovereignty in 19th-century France (Cambridge, MA, and London, 2004), esp. 3-4, 7-11, 179-200, 227-8. (Cambridge, MA, and London, 2004), esp. 3-4, 7-11, 179-200, 227-8.

81 P. S. Wells, P. S. Wells, Barbarians to Angels: The Dark Ages Reconsidered Barbarians to Angels: The Dark Ages Reconsidered (New York and London, 2008), Ch. 4. (New York and London, 2008), Ch. 4.

82 Beales, Beales, Prosperity and Plunder Prosperity and Plunder, 282-90.

83 For incisive discussion of nationalism, see R. English, For incisive discussion of nationalism, see R. English, Irish Freedom: The History of Nationalism in Ireland Irish Freedom: The History of Nationalism in Ireland (Basingstoke and Oxford, 2006), 1-21. (Basingstoke and Oxford, 2006), 1-21.

84 Burleigh, 261-3. Burleigh, 261-3.

85 Ibid., 235-41. Ibid., 235-41.

86 Ibid., 247-8. Ibid., 247-8.