As the long column finally got under way in New Jersey, the road winding through the woods was steep and treacherous, slippery to man and beast alike. The slanting snow, sleet, and hail drove straight into the faces of men plunging forward in nearly total darkness. At least two exhausted soldiers tumbled into roadside snowdrifts and froze to death. At a place called Jacob's Creek, the soldiers had to execute the risky maneuver of rolling artillery across a deep chasm. On horseback, Washington was directing their movements when the hind legs of his horse buckled and began to skid down the ice-covered slope. His men then saw the greatest horseman of his age perform an equestrian tour de force. Twining his fingers through the horse's mane, Washington yanked its large head upright with all his might. At the same time, he rocked and shifted his weight backward in his saddle until the horse regained its equilibrium. The amazing feat happened in the blink of an eye, then the artillery movement continued.

It proved an agonizing ride for Washington. His army was only halfway to Trenton when the first sunlight wanly colored the sky at six A.M. One soldier remembered Washington speaking "in a deep and solemn voice," cautioning his men, "Soldiers, keep by your officers. For G.o.d's sake, keep by your officers."23 Taking food and drink on horseback in the thin dawn light, Washington held an impromptu conference with his generals and they decided to proceed with their original plan, splitting the column and heading on to Trenton by both high and low roads. With his congenital penchant for punctuality, Washington pulled out his timepiece and asked the generals to set their watches by it. Taking the upper Pennington Road with Greene, Washington chose the more arduous route. As the parallel detachments plodded on through a new wave of sleet and swirling snow, a messenger from Sullivan informed Washington that his men's sodden weapons were now useless. "Tell the general to use the bayonet," Washington said. Taking food and drink on horseback in the thin dawn light, Washington held an impromptu conference with his generals and they decided to proceed with their original plan, splitting the column and heading on to Trenton by both high and low roads. With his congenital penchant for punctuality, Washington pulled out his timepiece and asked the generals to set their watches by it. Taking the upper Pennington Road with Greene, Washington chose the more arduous route. As the parallel detachments plodded on through a new wave of sleet and swirling snow, a messenger from Sullivan informed Washington that his men's sodden weapons were now useless. "Tell the general to use the bayonet," Washington said.24 He then galloped along the lines, trying to speed the march's tempo in the brightening morning light. "Press on," he urged the men. "Press on, boys!" He then galloped along the lines, trying to speed the march's tempo in the brightening morning light. "Press on," he urged the men. "Press on, boys!"25 At around seven-thirty A.M., the operation was nearly derailed by a preposterous blunder committed by an old Washington colleague. General Adam Stephen had fought with Washington in Braddock's campaign and vied with him for a seat in the House of Burgesses. The day before the Delaware crossing, he had dispatched a company of Virginians to scout enemy positions in Trenton. Now, as he neared the town, Washington was shocked to meet these fifty Virginians and learn that they had exchanged fire with Hessian sentries, raising the appalling specter that the Hessians had been alerted to the Continental Army's advent. Under questioning, Captain George Wallis told Washington they had acted under instructions from Stephen. Washington summarily hauled the latter into his presence. "You, sir!" Washington scolded him. "You, sir, may have ruined all my plans by having put them on their guard."26 Those present were amazed by the vivid show of temper, but Washington soon regained his self-mastery and told the Virginians to fall in with his column. Those present were amazed by the vivid show of temper, but Washington soon regained his self-mastery and told the Virginians to fall in with his column.

The mythology of the Battle of Trenton portrays the Hessian mercenaries as slumbering in a drunken stupor after imbibing late-night Christmas cheer. In fact, Colonel Johann Gottlieb Rall had kept his men on high alert, and they felt frazzled and exhausted from constant drills and patrols. Quite shrewdly, Washington had worn them down by irregular raids and small skirmishes in the surrounding countryside. If the Hessians were caught off guard that morning, it was only because they thought the forbidding weather would preclude an attack. These tough, brawny hirelings, with a reputation for ferocity, inspired healthy fear among the Americans. But handicapped by their patronizing view of the Americans, they couldn't conceive of something of quite the scale and daring that Washington attempted. "I must concede that on the whole we had a poor opinion of the rebels, who previously had never successfully opposed us," said Lieutenant Jakob Piel.27 Having received multiple warnings of the surprise attack, Rall was so certain of the superiority of his men that he dismissed these reports with blithe bravado: "Let them come." Having received multiple warnings of the surprise attack, Rall was so certain of the superiority of his men that he dismissed these reports with blithe bravado: "Let them come."28 As Washington approached Trenton, he was astounded by the valor of his men, who had marched all night and were still eager to attack. Though a snowy tempest still whirled around them, the squalls now blew at their backs as they raced forward at a brisk pace. Intent on exploiting the element of surprise, Washington wanted his men to startle the Hessians. Emerging from the Trenton woods shortly after eight A.M., he divided his wing of the army into three columns and spearheaded the middle column himself, trotting forward in an exposed position. As his men surged ahead, he reported to Hanc.o.c.k, they "seemed to vie with the other in pressing forward." 29 29 Washington heard artillery blasts exploding on the River Road, confirming that the two American wings had coordinated their arrival. Washington heard artillery blasts exploding on the River Road, confirming that the two American wings had coordinated their arrival.

Trenton consisted of a hundred or so houses, long since deserted by their occupants. Knox's cannon began to fire with pinpoint accuracy down the two main streets, King and Queen, with Alexander Hamilton again in the thick of the fray. "The hurry, fright, and confusion of the enemy was [not] unlike that which will be when the last trump shall sound," said Knox, who forced the German gunners to abandon their weapons and scatter to the southern end of town.30 Colonel Rall mobilized a group of men in an apple orchard, then tried to steer a charge toward Washington. Responding to this move, Washington adroitly positioned his men on high ground nearby. As John Greenwood recalled, "General Washington, on horseback and alone, came up to our major and said, 'March on, my brave fellows, after me!' and rode off."31 Washington's quick-witted action stopped the Hessian advance in its tracks. Colonel Rall, who was riddled with bullets, "reeled in the saddle" before being rescued from his horse and carried to a church. Washington conversed with the dying Rall and ordered that all Hessian prisoners be treated honorably. When he learned from Major James Wilkinson of the surrender of the last regiment, he beamed with quiet pleasure. "Major Wilkinson," he replied, shaking his hand, "this is a glorious day for our country." Washington's quick-witted action stopped the Hessian advance in its tracks. Colonel Rall, who was riddled with bullets, "reeled in the saddle" before being rescued from his horse and carried to a church. Washington conversed with the dying Rall and ordered that all Hessian prisoners be treated honorably. When he learned from Major James Wilkinson of the surrender of the last regiment, he beamed with quiet pleasure. "Major Wilkinson," he replied, shaking his hand, "this is a glorious day for our country."32 Since he had crafted the strategy and led his men to glory, the stunning victory belonged to Washington lock, stock, and barrel. Since he had crafted the strategy and led his men to glory, the stunning victory belonged to Washington lock, stock, and barrel.

The American triumph was accomplished in less than an hour."It may be doubted," wrote George Trevelyan, "whether so small a number of men ever employed so short a s.p.a.ce of time with greater and more lasting effects upon the history of the world."33 The battle toll was a b.l.o.o.d.y one for the Hessians: 22 killed, 84 wounded, and nearly 900 captured (500 escaped to safety) versus only 2 American deaths in combat plus another 4 or 5 from exposure to cold. A huge bonanza of muskets, bayonets, cannon, and swords fell into American hands. The patriots also took possession of forty hogs-heads of rum. Trying to enforce sobriety, Washington ordered the rum spilled on the ground, but many men, unable to resist the comfort of warming liquor, grew wildly intoxicated. The patriotic myth about Trenton inverts the reality: it wasn't the Hessians who were inebriated before the battle, but the patriots afterward. The battle toll was a b.l.o.o.d.y one for the Hessians: 22 killed, 84 wounded, and nearly 900 captured (500 escaped to safety) versus only 2 American deaths in combat plus another 4 or 5 from exposure to cold. A huge bonanza of muskets, bayonets, cannon, and swords fell into American hands. The patriots also took possession of forty hogs-heads of rum. Trying to enforce sobriety, Washington ordered the rum spilled on the ground, but many men, unable to resist the comfort of warming liquor, grew wildly intoxicated. The patriotic myth about Trenton inverts the reality: it wasn't the Hessians who were inebriated before the battle, but the patriots afterward.

Mindful of the frigid weather and the wobbly state of the drunken troops, Washington and his officers decided to hasten back to the Pennsylvania side of the Delaware, an operation complicated by the need to shepherd Hessian prisoners as well. The proud but weather-beaten army had endured a sixty-hour marathon of frostbite, disease, and exhaustion and needed rest. In his general orders for December 27, Washington thanked his men with unstinting fervor, banishing all traces of the sn.o.bbery he once felt toward them: "The General, with the utmost sincerity and affection, thanks the officers and soldiers for their spirited and gallant behavior at Trenton yesterday."34 The army had harvested a trove of Hessian trophies, ranging from guns to horses, and Washington had the cash value of these spoils distributed proportionately among his soldiers. Even though some had gotten roaring drunk at Trenton, Washington relaxed his usual practice and had more rum ladled out to his thirsty men. The army had harvested a trove of Hessian trophies, ranging from guns to horses, and Washington had the cash value of these spoils distributed proportionately among his soldiers. Even though some had gotten roaring drunk at Trenton, Washington relaxed his usual practice and had more rum ladled out to his thirsty men.

In truth, Washington had little time to rejoice after this bravura performance. Now headquartered in the "old yellow house" of widow Hannah Harris, he convened a war council on December 27 at which the generals digested a startling piece of news: that morning, Colonel Cadwalader had belatedly crossed the Delaware with eighteen hundred militiamen, hoping to mount a second New Jersey offensive. The generals grappled with a tough predicament. They voiced doubts about recrossing the Delaware and tempting fate again, but they were loath to strand Cadwalader and wanted to prove that the first crossing hadn't been a fluke. A consensus slowly took shape to strike again at Trenton. "It was a remarkable and very instructive success for Washington's maturing style of quiet, consultative leadership," notes David Hackett Fischer.35 The Trenton victory had wrought a wondrous transformation; the deliberations of Washington and his generals were now informed by a newfound confidence. The Trenton victory had wrought a wondrous transformation; the deliberations of Washington and his generals were now informed by a newfound confidence.

On December 28, amid thickening snow flurries, Washington ordered militia units in northern New Jersey to stymie the enemy and "hara.s.s their flanks and rear."36 Then on December 29 he set in motion the enormous gamble ratified by his generals, sending his men back across to Trenton. This second crossing, even more ambitious than the first, encompa.s.sed eight crossing points and twice as many cannon. A fresh sheet of ice impeded the boats and r.e.t.a.r.ded the operation. Washington himself didn't cross the Delaware until December 30, when he stationed his men on a secure slope behind a.s.sunpink Creek, a narrow, fast-moving creek at the southern end of Trenton. This entrenched position posed more formidable risks than the swift hit-and-run raid launched on Christmas Night. Then on December 29 he set in motion the enormous gamble ratified by his generals, sending his men back across to Trenton. This second crossing, even more ambitious than the first, encompa.s.sed eight crossing points and twice as many cannon. A fresh sheet of ice impeded the boats and r.e.t.a.r.ded the operation. Washington himself didn't cross the Delaware until December 30, when he stationed his men on a secure slope behind a.s.sunpink Creek, a narrow, fast-moving creek at the southern end of Trenton. This entrenched position posed more formidable risks than the swift hit-and-run raid launched on Christmas Night.

The first Delaware crossing had afforded graphic proof of the advantages of speed and flexibility in improvising military operations. With many enlistments about to expire, General Greene had lobbied Congress to give Washington additional powers while "reserving to yourself the right of confirming or repealing the measures."37 Greene insisted that Washington would never abuse a wide-ranging new grant of authority. "There never was a man that might be more safely trusted," he a.s.serted. Greene insisted that Washington would never abuse a wide-ranging new grant of authority. "There never was a man that might be more safely trusted," he a.s.serted.38 On December 27 a once-carping, meddlesome Congress granted extraordinary powers to Washington for six months, allowing him to muster new troops by paying bounties, to commandeer provisions, and even to arrest vendors who didn't accept Continental currency. These powers, breathtaking in scope, aroused fears of a despot in the making-fears that Washington quickly laid to rest. He understood that liberties should be affirmed even as they were being temporarily abridged, and he planned to set aside emergency powers the instant they were no longer needed. As he informed Congress, "I shall constantly bear in mind that, as the sword was the last resort for the preservation of our liberties, so it ought to be the first thing laid aside when those liberties are firmly established." On December 27 a once-carping, meddlesome Congress granted extraordinary powers to Washington for six months, allowing him to muster new troops by paying bounties, to commandeer provisions, and even to arrest vendors who didn't accept Continental currency. These powers, breathtaking in scope, aroused fears of a despot in the making-fears that Washington quickly laid to rest. He understood that liberties should be affirmed even as they were being temporarily abridged, and he planned to set aside emergency powers the instant they were no longer needed. As he informed Congress, "I shall constantly bear in mind that, as the sword was the last resort for the preservation of our liberties, so it ought to be the first thing laid aside when those liberties are firmly established."39 In this manner, Washington strengthened civilian authority over the military. In this manner, Washington strengthened civilian authority over the military.

The immediate task at hand was to persuade men to linger whose enlistments expired on New Year's Day. By bringing his soldiers to Trenton, Washington made it more difficult for them to decamp, and he mustered all his hortatory powers to retain them. On December 30 he had a recalcitrant New England regiment lined up before him. Sitting erect on his horse, he made an impa.s.sioned appeal, asking them to extend their service by six weeks and offering them a ten-dollar bounty. As one sergeant recalled, Washington "told us our services were greatly needed and that we could do more for our country than we ever could at any future date and in the most affectionate manner entreated us to stay."40 The word that leaps out here is The word that leaps out here is affectionate affectionate. Here was George Washington, patriarch of Mount Vernon, addressing farmers, shoemakers, weavers, and carpenters as intimate comrades-in-arms. A year earlier this hypercritical man had frowned on these soldiers as an unsavory rabble; now he lavished them with praise. When Jacky Custis told him of squawking in Virginia about New England troops, Washington took umbrage: "I do not believe that any of the states produce better men, or persons capable of making better soldiers."41 Though he still believed in hierarchical distinctions, especially between officers and their men, the war was molding him into a far more egalitarian figure. Though he still believed in hierarchical distinctions, especially between officers and their men, the war was molding him into a far more egalitarian figure.

When drums rumbled out a roll call for volunteers, n.o.body at first stepped forward. One vocal soldier piped up and spoke of their shared sacrifices, how much they had dreamed of heading home. Pulling up his horse, Washington wheeled about and rode along the entire line of men. With his reserved manner and austere code of conduct, he didn't frequently voice his feelings, only making it more impressive when he did so. "My brave fellows," he said, "you have done all I asked you to do and more than could be reasonably expected. But your country is at stake, your wives, your houses, and all that you hold dear . . . If you will consent to stay one month longer, you will render that service to the cause of liberty and to your country which you probably can never do under any other circ.u.mstances."42 As the drums resumed beating, the soldiers huddled and conferred among themselves. One was overheard to say, "I will remain if you will," while another told his fellows that "we cannot go home under such circ.u.mstances."43 A small knot of men stepped forward grudgingly, prompting several more to do so; finally all two hundred joined in. For Washington, the war had become a constant game of high-stakes improvisation, played out under extreme duress. For these two hundred men, the extra six weeks entailed no small commitment: half would perish from combat wounds or illness. The same scene was soon reenacted with other regiments as Washington, showing dramatic flair and plainspoken eloquence, held on to more than three thousand men. In another inspired gesture, he told subordinates that the men who agreed to stay didn't need to be formally enrolled but would be trusted to make good on their verbal pledges. He was treating them not as commoners, but as tried-and-true gentlemen. A small knot of men stepped forward grudgingly, prompting several more to do so; finally all two hundred joined in. For Washington, the war had become a constant game of high-stakes improvisation, played out under extreme duress. For these two hundred men, the extra six weeks entailed no small commitment: half would perish from combat wounds or illness. The same scene was soon reenacted with other regiments as Washington, showing dramatic flair and plainspoken eloquence, held on to more than three thousand men. In another inspired gesture, he told subordinates that the men who agreed to stay didn't need to be formally enrolled but would be trusted to make good on their verbal pledges. He was treating them not as commoners, but as tried-and-true gentlemen.

To ferret out enemy intentions, Washington sent a cavalry patrol to reconnoiter around Princeton. Several captured British dragoons revealed that the British had ama.s.sed eight thousand men at Princeton and were girding themselves under General Cornwallis to attack Washington at Trenton. As this second Battle of Trenton loomed, the humiliated Hessians were in an especially vengeful mood, and their leader, Colonel von Donop, decreed a bloodthirsty policy of taking no prisoners.

Toward sundown at Trenton on January 2, 1777, Washington spotted the vanguard of Cornwallis, who had brought an army of 5,500 men. Washington arrayed his men on the slope behind a.s.sunpink Creek in three horizontal bands, covering the entire hillside. As Hessian troops hurtled down King and Queen streets, American snipers fired at them. An advance force of Continental soldiers waded back across the rain-swollen creek while others fell back across the stone bridge. When it looked momentarily as if the retreating Americans would be hacked to death by Hessian bayonets, Washington swung into action. Sitting astride his horse at the far end of the bridge, he mobilized his men. Evidently he not only looked but felt felt like a G.o.dlike image of solidity; soldiers who b.u.mped against him couldn't shake his granite poise. Private John Howland left this evocative portrait: like a G.o.dlike image of solidity; soldiers who b.u.mped against him couldn't shake his granite poise. Private John Howland left this evocative portrait: The n.o.ble horse of Gen. Washington stood with his breast pressed close against the end of the west rail of the bridge, and the firm, composed, and majestic countenance of the general inspired confidence and a.s.surance in a moment so important and critical. In this pa.s.sage across the bridge, it was my fortune to be next [to] the west rail, and arriving at the end of the bridge rail, I was pressed against the shoulder of the general's horse and in contact with the general's boot. The horse stood as firm as the rider and seemed to understand that he was not to quit his post and station.44 This preternatural composure, coming in the heat of battle, made Washington a living presence to his men.

The British made three courageous attempts to take the bridge, and each time American artillery repulsed them, strewing many cadavers in their wake. "The bridge looked red as blood," wrote Sergeant Joseph White, "with their killed and wounded and red coats."45 Several hundred British and Hessian soldiers died in vain attempts to storm the American positions. Nevertheless, the patriots were heavily outnumbered by Cornwallis's army and had no clear escape strategy. In the dying light of a winter day, Cornwallis and his officers conferred about whether to postpone the main attack. "If Washington is the general I take him to be," Sir William Erskine said, "he will not be found in the morning." An overly confident Cornwallis disputed this a.s.sertion. "We've got the old fox safe now," he supposedly said. "We'll go over and bag him in the morning." Several hundred British and Hessian soldiers died in vain attempts to storm the American positions. Nevertheless, the patriots were heavily outnumbered by Cornwallis's army and had no clear escape strategy. In the dying light of a winter day, Cornwallis and his officers conferred about whether to postpone the main attack. "If Washington is the general I take him to be," Sir William Erskine said, "he will not be found in the morning." An overly confident Cornwallis disputed this a.s.sertion. "We've got the old fox safe now," he supposedly said. "We'll go over and bag him in the morning."46 Washington worried that his men might be encircled by the superior British force-they were cooped up like a flock of chickens, in Henry Knox's colorful phrase-and knew that any retreat across a Delaware River chock-full of ice floes could be costly. Convening his generals on this frosty night, he stated that the loss of the corps he commanded "might be fatal to the country," and, under these circ.u.mstances, he asked for advice.47 Once again a single misstep could be devastating. The war council decided to have the army slip away during the night, much as it had disappeared across the East River. Still better, it would convert a defensive move into an offensive measure, circling around the left flank of Cornwallis's army and heading north along unfrequented back roads to confront the British at Princeton. Washington again hid a political strategy behind his military strategy. "One thing I was sure of," he remarked afterward, was "that it would avoid the appearance of a retreat, which was of consequence." Once again a single misstep could be devastating. The war council decided to have the army slip away during the night, much as it had disappeared across the East River. Still better, it would convert a defensive move into an offensive measure, circling around the left flank of Cornwallis's army and heading north along unfrequented back roads to confront the British at Princeton. Washington again hid a political strategy behind his military strategy. "One thing I was sure of," he remarked afterward, was "that it would avoid the appearance of a retreat, which was of consequence."48 This supremely risky strategy meant penetrating deep into enemy territory and possibly being entrapped. Nevertheless, Washington and his generals, who now operated with exceptional cohesion, embraced the course unanimously. This supremely risky strategy meant penetrating deep into enemy territory and possibly being entrapped. Nevertheless, Washington and his generals, who now operated with exceptional cohesion, embraced the course unanimously.

To camouflage the nighttime retreat, which would start after midnight, Washington reprised the same repertoire of tricks he had applied on Long Island. The wheels of the artillery were wrapped in rags to deaden sounds. Campfires were kept burning to foster the illusion of an army settled in for the night. Loud noises were broadcast with entrenching tools, as if the Americans were digging in for violent reprisals the next day. Again the troops were kept unaware of their destination. In fact, Washington stole away with such artful stealth, wrote one officer, that "the rear guard and many of his own sentinels never missed him."49 In marching twelve miles through the night toward Princeton, Washington pushed his long-suffering men almost beyond human endurance. It was a long, harrowing march down dark country lanes congealed with ice. The weary men, wrapped in a numb trance, some barely awake, padded against stinging winds; many fell asleep standing up whenever the column halted. In marching twelve miles through the night toward Princeton, Washington pushed his long-suffering men almost beyond human endurance. It was a long, harrowing march down dark country lanes congealed with ice. The weary men, wrapped in a numb trance, some barely awake, padded against stinging winds; many fell asleep standing up whenever the column halted.

The troops arrived at the college town later than scheduled, shortly after an exceptionally clear, beautiful dawn that James Wilkinson remembered as "bright, serene, and extremely cold, with a h.o.a.rfrost that bespangled every object."50 The men rapidly repaired a bridge over Stony Brook, south of town, before the army divided into two groups: Sullivan's division veered northeast while Greene's moved due north. The first spirited fighting erupted unexpectedly. Lieutenant Colonel Charles Mawhood was about to rush two British regiments to Trenton to aid Cornwallis when, to his infinite surprise, he encountered American forces under General Hugh Mercer in a broad, rolling meadow. "I believe they were as much astonished as if an army had dropped perpendicularly upon them," declared Knox. The men rapidly repaired a bridge over Stony Brook, south of town, before the army divided into two groups: Sullivan's division veered northeast while Greene's moved due north. The first spirited fighting erupted unexpectedly. Lieutenant Colonel Charles Mawhood was about to rush two British regiments to Trenton to aid Cornwallis when, to his infinite surprise, he encountered American forces under General Hugh Mercer in a broad, rolling meadow. "I believe they were as much astonished as if an army had dropped perpendicularly upon them," declared Knox.51 Mawhood ordered a ferocious bayonet charge that staggered Mercer's men. Mercer himself was knocked off his horse and given a merciless drubbing as he lay on the ground. In capturing the dapper, handsome Mercer-a physician from Fredericksburg and a friend of Washington's-the British imagined they had taken the commander in chief himself. "Call for quarters, you d.a.m.ned rebel," they taunted him. To which Mercer retorted, "I am no rebel," and slashed at them with his sword. Mawhood ordered a ferocious bayonet charge that staggered Mercer's men. Mercer himself was knocked off his horse and given a merciless drubbing as he lay on the ground. In capturing the dapper, handsome Mercer-a physician from Fredericksburg and a friend of Washington's-the British imagined they had taken the commander in chief himself. "Call for quarters, you d.a.m.ned rebel," they taunted him. To which Mercer retorted, "I am no rebel," and slashed at them with his sword. 52 52 The British mauled him repeatedly with their bayonets, carving seven gashes, until he lay near death. For Washington, it was a disturbing preview of the fate awaiting him if ever he were captured. The British mauled him repeatedly with their bayonets, carving seven gashes, until he lay near death. For Washington, it was a disturbing preview of the fate awaiting him if ever he were captured.

The Battle of Princeton gave Washington another chance to show that he was the army's chief warrior in the antique sense. The eighteenth-century battlefield was a compact s.p.a.ce, its cramped contours defined by the short range of muskets and bayonet charges, giving generals a chance to inspire by their immediate presence. When Mercer's men began to retreat, harried by redcoats flashing bayonets, General Greene directed Pennsylvania militia into the fray, only to have them collide with Mercer's fleeing men amid "a shower of grapeshot."53 The American panic was stemmed by Washington himself, who suddenly circled into view and exhorted his rattled men to stand and fight. "Parade with us, my brave fellows!" he exclaimed, waving his hat. "There is but a handful of the enemy, and we will have them directly." The American panic was stemmed by Washington himself, who suddenly circled into view and exhorted his rattled men to stand and fight. "Parade with us, my brave fellows!" he exclaimed, waving his hat. "There is but a handful of the enemy, and we will have them directly." 54 54 According to his aide-de-camp Colonel John Fitzgerald, Washington rallied the men with an act of unbelievable bravery: he reined in his horse, faced the enemy directly, and simply froze. Yet again the intrepid Washington acted as if he were protected by an invisible aura. According to his aide-de-camp Colonel John Fitzgerald, Washington rallied the men with an act of unbelievable bravery: he reined in his horse, faced the enemy directly, and simply froze. Yet again the intrepid Washington acted as if he were protected by an invisible aura.

With the British entrenched beyond a hillside fence, Washington lengthened and strengthened the patriot line, instructing his men not to fire until told to do so. He exhibited exceptional sangfroid as he rode along the line. Then he personally led the charge up the hill, halting only when they had pushed within thirty yards of their adversaries. As he issued the command to fire, Washington, on his white charger, was such a conspicuous target that Fitzgerald clapped his hat over his eyes because he couldn't bear to see him shot. When the fusillade of bullets ended and the enemy scattered, Fitzgerald finally peeked and saw Washington, untouched, sitting proudly atop his horse, wreathed by eddying smoke. "Thank G.o.d, your Excellency is safe!" Fitzgerald said to him, almost weeping with relief. Washington, unfazed, took his hand fondly. "Away, my dear colonel, and bring up the troops. The day is our own!"55 Fitzgerald wasn't the only one bowled over by Washington's coolness. "I shall never forget what I felt . . . when I saw him brave all the dangers of the field and his important life hanging as it were by a single hair with a thousand deaths flying around him," wrote a young Philadelphia officer. "Believe me, I thought not of myself." Fitzgerald wasn't the only one bowled over by Washington's coolness. "I shall never forget what I felt . . . when I saw him brave all the dangers of the field and his important life hanging as it were by a single hair with a thousand deaths flying around him," wrote a young Philadelphia officer. "Believe me, I thought not of myself."56 Washington spurred his horse after the retreating enemy, for once giving way to pure exhilaration. Perhaps repaying the old insult from the Battle of Harlem Heights, he shouted to his men, "It's a fine fox chase, my boys!"57 Whatever joy he felt, however, was tempered by the horrifying spectacle of a snowy battlefield stained with American blood. One officer lay "rolling and writhing in his blood, unconscious of anything around him." Whatever joy he felt, however, was tempered by the horrifying spectacle of a snowy battlefield stained with American blood. One officer lay "rolling and writhing in his blood, unconscious of anything around him."58 An adolescent lieutenant had a bullet hole in his chest and a skull smashed in by a bayonet. And so on. An adolescent lieutenant had a bullet hole in his chest and a skull smashed in by a bayonet. And so on.

In the battle's concluding chapter, two hundred British troops sought asylum in the princ.i.p.al college building, Na.s.sau Hall. According to legend, Alexander Hamilton deployed his artillery against the building and decapitated a portrait of King George II with a cannonball. By the time a white flag of surrender popped from a window, the victorious Americans had inflicted more than five hundred casualties and taken between two hundred and three hundred prisoners; only about three dozen Americans were killed in the one-sided battle. To Washington's dismay, his soldiers, avid for booty, ransacked Na.s.sau Hall and dragged out food, clothing, furniture, and even paintings. They also fleeced uniforms from British corpses on the battlefield. To stop this plunder, Washington had the field cordoned off by sentries. He also accompanied two wounded redcoats to private homes, where American surgeons treated them and performed amputations. In his humane treatment of prisoners, Washington wanted to make a major statement, telling one officer that British captives should "have no reason to complain of our copying the brutal example of the British army in their treatment of our unfortunate brethren."59 The consecutive victories at Trenton and Princeton resurrected American spirits, especially since the Continental Army had scored an undisputed victory over British regulars. The psychology of the war was dramatically reversed, with the once-dominant British presence in New Jersey "reduced to the compa.s.s of a very few miles," in Washington's view.60 By rolling back British gains, he undercut the Crown's new strategy of securing territory and handing out pardons. Nathanael Greene estimated that the Americans had killed or captured up to three thousand enemy soldiers in a two-week stretch. Although Washington wanted to proceed to New Brunswick and raid a major storehouse of British supplies, his men hadn't slept for two days, and he didn't believe he could press them further. By rolling back British gains, he undercut the Crown's new strategy of securing territory and handing out pardons. Nathanael Greene estimated that the Americans had killed or captured up to three thousand enemy soldiers in a two-week stretch. Although Washington wanted to proceed to New Brunswick and raid a major storehouse of British supplies, his men hadn't slept for two days, and he didn't believe he could press them further.

The back-to-back victories had also changed the calculus of the war. Henceforth the British would have to conquer the colonists, not simply cow them into submission. The Americans, having bounced back from near despair, now showed an irrepressible esprit de corps. "A few days ago, they had given up the cause for lost," scoffed the Loyalist Nicholas Cresswell. "Their late successes have turned the scale and now they are all liberty mad again."61 "Four weeks ago, we expected to end the war with the capture of Philadelphia," said the Hessian captain Johann Ewald, "and now we had to render Washington the honor of thinking about our defense." "Four weeks ago, we expected to end the war with the capture of Philadelphia," said the Hessian captain Johann Ewald, "and now we had to render Washington the honor of thinking about our defense."62 The consecutive battles exalted George Washington to a new pinnacle of renown. He had taken the demoralized men who shuffled wearily across New Jersey and shaped them into valiant heroes. Through the many newspaper accounts, these events pa.s.sed directly into American legend. "Had he lived in the days of idolatry," said a rhapsodic piece in the Pennsylvania Journal, Pennsylvania Journal, Washington would have "been worshiped as a G.o.d." Washington would have "been worshiped as a G.o.d."63 The battle's repercussions were worldwide, overturning the presumption that amateur volunteers could never defeat a well-trained European army. Even Frederick the Great added his congratulations: "The achievements of Washington and his little band of compatriots between the 25th of December and the 4th of January, a s.p.a.ce of 10 days, were the most brilliant of any recorded in the annals of military achievements." The battle's repercussions were worldwide, overturning the presumption that amateur volunteers could never defeat a well-trained European army. Even Frederick the Great added his congratulations: "The achievements of Washington and his little band of compatriots between the 25th of December and the 4th of January, a s.p.a.ce of 10 days, were the most brilliant of any recorded in the annals of military achievements."64 For all the many virtues he had shown in his life, nothing quite foreshadowed the wisdom, courage, fort.i.tude, and resolution that George Washington had just exhibited. Adversity had brought his best traits to the surface and even enn.o.bled him. Sensing it, Abigail Adams told her friend Mercy Otis Warren, "I am apt to think that our later misfortunes have called out the hidden excellencies of our commander-in-chief." She quoted a line from the English poet Edward Young: " 'Affliction is the good man's shining time.'"65 One consistent thread from his earlier life had prefigured these events: Washington's tenacity of purpose, his singular ability to stalk a goal with all the resources at his disposal. One consistent thread from his earlier life had prefigured these events: Washington's tenacity of purpose, his singular ability to stalk a goal with all the resources at his disposal.

Another stalwart admirer of Washington was Charles Willson Peale. In 1779 the Supreme Executive Council of Philadelphia commissioned him to execute a full-length portrait of Washington to commemorate his Princeton triumph. Washington sat for the portrait over a two-week period, and the result was an inspiring work of easy, graceful lines. A debonair Washington stands with Na.s.sau Hall in the background and a Hessian standard unfurled at his feet. His blue jacket with gold epaulettes opens to reveal a pale blue sash curving across his paunch. He holds one arm akimbo, the other resting on the barrel of a cannon. At the height of his power, Washington stands tall and imposing in high black boots with gold-colored spurs; the left foot is elegantly drawn back, resting on its toes. The portrait breathes a manly swagger, an air of high-flown accomplishment. All traces of provincial tentativeness and uncertainty have disappeared from Washington's personality. This was the magnetic Washington that so enthralled his contemporaries, not the stiff, craggy figure made familiar to later generations by Gilbert Stuart.

Washington didn't pause to savor his victory at Princeton. Once Cornwallis awoke and discovered the American ruse, he rushed toward Princeton at a maddening, helter-skelter pace "in a most infernal sweat, running, puffing and blowing and swearing at being so outwitted," laughed Henry Knox.66 The British arrived an hour after the Continental Army had deserted the town. Washington put his dazed, depleted men through the paces of another fifteen-mile march north to Somerset Court House. They arrived there after sundown and, exhausted, instantly fell asleep on any available bed of straw they could find. The British arrived an hour after the Continental Army had deserted the town. Washington put his dazed, depleted men through the paces of another fifteen-mile march north to Somerset Court House. They arrived there after sundown and, exhausted, instantly fell asleep on any available bed of straw they could find.

CHAPTER TWENTY-FOUR.

The Busy Scenes of a Camp FOR ALL THE ILl.u.s.tRIOUS FEATS that Washington's soldiers performed at Trenton and Princeton, they were weary from their epic labors, and the euphoria of their victory was short-lived. The heroism of the patriot army, though quite real, would prove sporadic throughout the war, so that Washington's own constancy became necessary to sustain the Revolution. Notwithstanding the bounties they had pocketed, men kept vanishing into the woods every day, and Washington griped that he headed an army that was "here today, gone tomorrow, without a.s.signing a reason or even apprising you of it."1 To flesh out sixteen new regiments, he had to offer twenty-dollar bounties, one hundred acres of land, and a new suit of clothes to anyone older than seventeen but younger than fifty. To flesh out sixteen new regiments, he had to offer twenty-dollar bounties, one hundred acres of land, and a new suit of clothes to anyone older than seventeen but younger than fifty.

Washington remained frustrated with congressional reluctance to confer on him the power to appoint his own general officers. Some of the political resistance sprang from fear of arbitrary power, but it also testified to envy festering below the hero worship, a petulant undercurrent that would persist for the rest of Washington's career. Speaking of Washington, John Adams lectured his congressional colleagues not "to idolize an image which their own hands have molten." Adams thought Washington already had too much power: "It becomes us to attend early to the restraining [of] our army."2 After Princeton, an exhausted Washington took his shrunken army into winter headquarters in Morristown, New Jersey, instead of retreating back into Pennsylvania. This inspired decision enabled him to hara.s.s British supply lines and to expel the enemy from many parts of New Jersey. Nonetheless the decision carried grave risks. Washington was now perilously short of men, and as he admitted years later, the British could easily have vanquished this thinly guarded camp, "if they had only thought proper to march against us."3 A small incident shows that he didn't wish to jinx his recent run of victories through any precipitate action. On January 8 he thanked the Pennsylvania Council of Safety for "your notice of the eclipse of the sun which is to happen tomorrow. This event, without a previous knowledge, might affect the minds of the soldiery." A small incident shows that he didn't wish to jinx his recent run of victories through any precipitate action. On January 8 he thanked the Pennsylvania Council of Safety for "your notice of the eclipse of the sun which is to happen tomorrow. This event, without a previous knowledge, might affect the minds of the soldiery."4 In an age alive to portents, Washington feared that his soldiers might interpret a solar eclipse as a sign of providential displeasure. In an age alive to portents, Washington feared that his soldiers might interpret a solar eclipse as a sign of providential displeasure.

Twenty-five miles west of New York City, ringed by protective hills, Morristown was rich in farms that could feed famished troops and provide a snug winter retreat. For his headquarters, Washington chose a building on the village green that once served as a tavern. He enjoyed a frugal life, compared to the sumptuous b.a.l.l.s that General Howe was throwing for his officers in Manhattan. Once the hubbub of battle subsided, Washington longed for Martha's company and was starved for news of home. For months he had discontinued correspondence with friends and family in Virginia, "finding it incompatible with my public business," as he told Robert Morris. "A letter or two from my family are regularly sent by the post, but very irregularly received, which is rather mortifying, as it deprives me of the consolation of hearing from home on domestic matters."5 With his emotional life still rooted in Mount Vernon and the war now threatening to drag on interminably, he contended that n.o.body "suffers more by an absence from home than myself." With his emotional life still rooted in Mount Vernon and the war now threatening to drag on interminably, he contended that n.o.body "suffers more by an absence from home than myself."6 Martha, unable to travel across a s...o...b..und landscape, wouldn't arrive until nearly spring. Martha, unable to travel across a s...o...b..und landscape, wouldn't arrive until nearly spring.

The commander in chief had no respite from the crisis atmosphere that had shadowed him for months. Conditions were so appalling in patriot hospitals that one doctor remembered having seen "from four to five patients die on the same straw before it was changed." 7 7 When smallpox appeared in his camp, Washington feared a calamity and hastily informed Hanc.o.c.k that he planned to inoculate all his troops. He also asked Dr. William Shippen to inoculate recruits pa.s.sing through Philadelphia en route to his army, an enlightened action that helped stave off an epidemic. When smallpox appeared in his camp, Washington feared a calamity and hastily informed Hanc.o.c.k that he planned to inoculate all his troops. He also asked Dr. William Shippen to inoculate recruits pa.s.sing through Philadelphia en route to his army, an enlightened action that helped stave off an epidemic.

Washington's tenure as commander in chief featured relatively few battles, often fought after extended intervals of relative calm, underscoring the importance of winning the allegiance of a population that vacillated between fealty to the Crown and patriotic indignation. The fair treatment of civilians formed an essential part of the war effort. Washington had a sure grasp of the principles of this republican revolution, a.s.serting that "the spirit and willingness of the people must in a great measure take [the] place of coercion."8 No British general could compete with him in this contest for popular opinion. With one eye fixed on the civilian populace, Washington showed punctilious respect for private property and was especially perturbed when American troops sacked houses under the pretext that the owners were Tories. His overriding goal was to contrast his own humane behavior with the predatory ways of the enemy. No British general could compete with him in this contest for popular opinion. With one eye fixed on the civilian populace, Washington showed punctilious respect for private property and was especially perturbed when American troops sacked houses under the pretext that the owners were Tories. His overriding goal was to contrast his own humane behavior with the predatory ways of the enemy.

Nothing expressed Washington's outrage over the abuse of civilians more powerfully than an October 1778 incident involving his personal guard. John Herring, a member of that guard, was sent to get supplies for Washington's table and was furnished with a horse and pa.s.s. When rebuffed at the home of a Tory named Prince Howland, he spied some costly objects he coveted and dispatched three others from Washington's guard-John Herrick, Moses Walton, and a fifer named Elias Brown-to procure them. The three men broke into Howland's house and looted silver spoons, silver dollars, and clothing, then repeated the performance at the home of one John Hoag. In protesting the incident, Howland described the three vandals as having worn the round hats adorned with bearskin strips that distinguished Washington's guard. Washington endorsed the death sentences handed down by a court-martial to Herring, Brown, and Walton, along with one hundred lashes for Herrick. "His Excellency the Commander in Chief approves these sentences," read the general orders. "Shocked at the frequent, horrible villainies of this nature committed by the troops of late, he is determined to make examples which will deter the boldest and most harden[e]d offenders."9 While Walton and Brown escaped before execution, John Herring was duly hung, and John Herrick received his one hundred lashes. While Walton and Brown escaped before execution, John Herring was duly hung, and John Herrick received his one hundred lashes.

The opinions of New Jersey's citizens became of paramount importance after the Trenton and Princeton victories removed the aura of protection that had sustained Loyalist families. A militant to his fingertips, Washington cherished no love for Tories, whom he portrayed as diabolical and branded "abominable pests of society." 10 10 He now promulgated an order that those who had sworn loyalty to England should swear allegiance to the United States. For those who demurred, Washington granted (in a lovely rhetorical ploy) "full liberty" to defect to the other side. He now promulgated an order that those who had sworn loyalty to England should swear allegiance to the United States. For those who demurred, Washington granted (in a lovely rhetorical ploy) "full liberty" to defect to the other side.11 He devised an exquisitely civilized policy: Loyalists would be conducted to British lines with their personal possessions but would have the option of leaving behind their wives and children. Such Solomon-like solutions made George Washington the country's first chief executive a dozen years before he was officially elected to the post. He devised an exquisitely civilized policy: Loyalists would be conducted to British lines with their personal possessions but would have the option of leaving behind their wives and children. Such Solomon-like solutions made George Washington the country's first chief executive a dozen years before he was officially elected to the post.

During the winter of 1776-77 the British sent out foraging parties from New York to raid the New Jersey countryside, and Washington directed the militia to "hara.s.s their troops to death" in what became a conflict of "daily skirmishes."12 This small-scale warfare whittled away British power as the militia gathered horses, cattle, and sheep to feed the American army. Thomas Jones, a Loyalist judge in New York, wrote that not "a stick of wood, a spear of gra.s.s or a kernel of corn could the troops in New Jersey procure without fighting for it." This small-scale warfare whittled away British power as the militia gathered horses, cattle, and sheep to feed the American army. Thomas Jones, a Loyalist judge in New York, wrote that not "a stick of wood, a spear of gra.s.s or a kernel of corn could the troops in New Jersey procure without fighting for it."13 Congressmen constantly requested that Washington defend their districts but refused to appropriate money to do so. These amateur experts, he thought, had no idea of the handicaps under which he toiled. "In a word," he seethed, "when they are at a distance, they think it is but to say, 'Presto! Begone' and everything is done." Congressmen constantly requested that Washington defend their districts but refused to appropriate money to do so. These amateur experts, he thought, had no idea of the handicaps under which he toiled. "In a word," he seethed, "when they are at a distance, they think it is but to say, 'Presto! Begone' and everything is done."14 It took tremendous strength to parry requests from politicians whose support he desperately needed. It took tremendous strength to parry requests from politicians whose support he desperately needed.

During the long Morristown winter, Washington made notable advances in organizing a spy network under his personal supervision. This operation had enjoyed a top priority from the moment he arrived in Cambridge in 1775. With his natural reticence and sphinxlike personality, Washington was a natural student of espionage. At first his spy operation was haphazard in nature, cohering into a true system only by 1779. To guarantee secrecy, he never hinted in letters at the ident.i.ty of spies. Instead he a.s.signed them names or numbers or employed vague locutions, such as "the person you mentioned."15 He favored having the minimum number of people involved in any spy ring, and the diagram of the network existed in his mind alone. After 1779 he frequently had spies communicate via invisible ink, developed by John James's brother James, who was a doctor and an amateur chemist. This ink was usually applied to blank pages of books or interlined in family letters. "It is in my power, I believe, to procure a liquid which nothing but a counter liquor (rubbed over the paper afterwards) can make legible" was how he described its workings. He favored having the minimum number of people involved in any spy ring, and the diagram of the network existed in his mind alone. After 1779 he frequently had spies communicate via invisible ink, developed by John James's brother James, who was a doctor and an amateur chemist. This ink was usually applied to blank pages of books or interlined in family letters. "It is in my power, I believe, to procure a liquid which nothing but a counter liquor (rubbed over the paper afterwards) can make legible" was how he described its workings.16 Secret notes were typically pressed between leather bindings and pasteboard covers of transported books. Secret notes were typically pressed between leather bindings and pasteboard covers of transported books.

To spy on New York-"the fountain of all intelligence," Washington anointed it-was his princ.i.p.al objective, and he soon had the town covered with informers. He preferred people who could gather intelligence in the course of their everyday affairs, and his mind proved inventive in its choices.17 With some spies Washington even offered personal coaching, telling one to "mix with and put on the airs of a Tory to cover his real character and avoid suspicion." With some spies Washington even offered personal coaching, telling one to "mix with and put on the airs of a Tory to cover his real character and avoid suspicion."18 With an insatiable appet.i.te for intelligence, he entreated Presbyterian minister Alexander McWhorter, the chaplain of an artillery brigade, to press convicted spies for information, while offering them theological comfort before they were hung. With an insatiable appet.i.te for intelligence, he entreated Presbyterian minister Alexander McWhorter, the chaplain of an artillery brigade, to press convicted spies for information, while offering them theological comfort before they were hung.

Right before the Princeton battle, Washington informed Philadelphia financier Robert Morris that "we have the greatest occasion at present for hard money to pay a certain set of people who are of particular use to us . . . Silver would be most convenient." 19 19 Washington considered Morris, a huge man with a ruddy complexion and a genial personality, the financier with the best mercantile knowledge and connections in North America. He often tapped Morris for money because he needed to bypa.s.s Congress, which couldn't be trusted to keep secrets. When Morris first approached a rich Quaker in Philadelphia for funds, the man balked, saying he was "opposed to fighting of any sort." Washington considered Morris, a huge man with a ruddy complexion and a genial personality, the financier with the best mercantile knowledge and connections in North America. He often tapped Morris for money because he needed to bypa.s.s Congress, which couldn't be trusted to keep secrets. When Morris first approached a rich Quaker in Philadelphia for funds, the man balked, saying he was "opposed to fighting of any sort."20 Morris overcame the man's religious scruples and sent Washington two canvas bags bulging with glittering coins, including Spanish silver dollars, French half crowns, and English crowns, an incident Washington always remembered. That he was allowed to supervise an espionage budget, without accounting to Congress, bespeaks the extraordinary trust placed in the commander in chief. Periodically he asked Congress for sums of gold for spies and kept the money bags with his personal belongings for safekeeping. He practiced the entire range of espionage tactics, including double agents and disinformation. In March 1777, for example, he pa.s.sed along a litany of false information to Elisha Boudinot, who was supposed to relay it to a spy "to deceive the enemy." Morris overcame the man's religious scruples and sent Washington two canvas bags bulging with glittering coins, including Spanish silver dollars, French half crowns, and English crowns, an incident Washington always remembered. That he was allowed to supervise an espionage budget, without accounting to Congress, bespeaks the extraordinary trust placed in the commander in chief. Periodically he asked Congress for sums of gold for spies and kept the money bags with his personal belongings for safekeeping. He practiced the entire range of espionage tactics, including double agents and disinformation. In March 1777, for example, he pa.s.sed along a litany of false information to Elisha Boudinot, who was supposed to relay it to a spy "to deceive the enemy."21 The circ.u.mspect Washington showed real artistry as a spymaster. This wasn't surprising, since he had repeatedly engaged in bluffs to fool the enemy. In April 1777 he alerted Joseph Reed that an unnamed man, recently arrested, had served as an American spy. He was such a valuable agent that Washington pa.s.sed along orders that his allegiance should be reinforced by a "handsome present in money" and that he should then be released in such a way as "to give it the appearance of an accidental escape from confinement."22 Washington's instructions sounded knowing: "Great care must be taken so to conduct the scheme as to make the escape appear natural and real. There must be neither too much facility, nor too much refinement, for doing too little, or overacting the part, would alike beget a suspicion." 23 In using spies as double agents to spread disinformation, Washington again seemed very expert: "It is best to keep them in a way of knowing as little of our true circ.u.mstances as possible and, in order that they may really deceive the enemy in their reports, to endeavour in the first place to deceive them." Washington's instructions sounded knowing: "Great care must be taken so to conduct the scheme as to make the escape appear natural and real. There must be neither too much facility, nor too much refinement, for doing too little, or overacting the part, would alike beget a suspicion." 23 In using spies as double agents to spread disinformation, Washington again seemed very expert: "It is best to keep them in a way of knowing as little of our true circ.u.mstances as possible and, in order that they may really deceive the enemy in their reports, to endeavour in the first place to deceive them."24 On one occasion that winter, when an officer requested permission to arrest a spy, Washington shrewdly suggested that he woo the spy with a dinner invitation, then leave nearby, as if by sheer negligence, a sheet pegging the Continental Army's strength at a grossly exaggerated number. It was one of many ways that Washington misled the enemy to conceal his own weakness. On one occasion that winter, when an officer requested permission to arrest a spy, Washington shrewdly suggested that he woo the spy with a dinner invitation, then leave nearby, as if by sheer negligence, a sheet pegging the Continental Army's strength at a grossly exaggerated number. It was one of many ways that Washington misled the enemy to conceal his own weakness.

Washington devoted far more time to the onerous task of drafting letters than to leading men into battle. Running an embryonic government, he protested to Congress that he and his aides "are confined from morn till eve, hearing and answering the applications and letters of one and another," leaving him with "no hours for recreation." 25 25 He groaned at the huge stacks of correspondence and felt besieged by supplicants for various favors. At times the enormous quant.i.ty of paperwork must have seemed more daunting than British arms. When brother Samuel asked for a portrait of him, he pleaded a lack of time to sit for a painter: "If ever you get a picture of mine, taken from the life, it must be when I am remov[e]d from the busy scenes of a camp." He groaned at the huge stacks of correspondence and felt besieged by supplicants for various favors. At times the enormous quant.i.ty of paperwork must have seemed more daunting than British arms. When brother Samuel asked for a portrait of him, he pleaded a lack of time to sit for a painter: "If ever you get a picture of mine, taken from the life, it must be when I am remov[e]d from the busy scenes of a camp."26 At times, he appeared overwhelmed by bureaucratic demands, with the "business of so many different departments centering with me and by me to be handed on to Congress for their information, added to the intercourse I am obliged to keep up with the adjacent states." At times, he appeared overwhelmed by bureaucratic demands, with the "business of so many different departments centering with me and by me to be handed on to Congress for their information, added to the intercourse I am obliged to keep up with the adjacent states." 27 27 Washington had trained himself to write pithy, meaty letters, with little frivolity or small talk. The letters were always clear, sometimes elegant, often forceful. Even Jefferson, a fluent wordsmith, praised Washington's correspondence, saying that "he wrote readily, rather diffusely, in an easy and correct style."28 Because aides drafted most of Washington's superlative wartime letters, some historians have denied him credit. But Washington oversaw their work, first giving them the gist of messages, then editing drafts until they met his exacting standards. His aides became fine mimics of their boss, and their letters echo one another's because they were well schooled in Washington's style. He wanted letters so immaculate that he had them rewritten several times if they contained even small erasures. Because aides drafted most of Washington's superlative wartime letters, some historians have denied him credit. But Washington oversaw their work, first giving them the gist of messages, then editing drafts until they met his exacting standards. His aides became fine mimics of their boss, and their letters echo one another's because they were well schooled in Washington's style. He wanted letters so immaculate that he had them rewritten several times if they contained even small erasures.

Washington worked in close proximity with aides, who typically slept under the same roof. These scribes labored in a single room, bent over small wooden tables, while the commander kept a small office to the side. As at Mount Vernon, Washington adhered to an unvarying daily routine. Arriving fully dressed, he breakfasted with his aides and parceled out letters to be answered, along with his preferred responses. He then reviewed his troops on horseback and expected to find the letters in finished form by the time of his noonday return.

The best camaraderie that Washington enjoyed came in the convivial company of his young aides during midafternoon dinners. Up to thirty people attended these affairs, many sitting on walnut camp stools. As much as possible, Washington converted these repasts into little oases of elegant society, a reminder of civilized