A great deal of steel is constantly being spoiled by carelessness in the forging operation. The billets may be perfectly sound, but even if the steel is heated to a good forging heat, and is hammered too lightly, a poor forging results. A proper blow will cause the edges and ends to bulge slightly outwards--the inner-most parts of the steel seem to flow faster than the surface. Light blows will work the surface out faster; the edges and ends will curve inwards. This condition in extreme cases leaves a seam in the axis of the forging.

Steel which is heated quickly and forging begun before uniform heat has penetrated to its center will open up seams because the cooler central portion is not able to flow with the hot metal surrounding it. Uniform heating is absolutely necessary for the best results.

Figure 16 shows a sound forging. The bars in Fig. 17 were burst by improper forging, while the die, Fig. 18, burst from a piped center.

Figure 19 shows a piece forged with a hammer too light for the size of the work. This gives an appearance similar to case-hardening, the refining effect of the blows reaching but a short distance from the surface.

While it is impossible to accurately rate the capacity of steam hammers with respect to the size of work they should handle, on account of the greatly varying conditions, a few notes from the experience of the Bement works of the Niles-Bement-Pond Company will be of service.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 16.--A sound forging.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 17.--Burst from improper forging.]

For making an occasional forging of a given size, a smaller hammer may be used than if we are manufacturing this same piece in large quant.i.ties. If we have a 6-in. piece to forge, such as a pinion or a short shaft, a hammer of about 1,100-lb. capacity would answer very nicely. But should the general work be as large as this, it would be very much better to use a 1,500-lb. hammer. If, on the other hand, we wish to forge 6-in. axles economically, it would be necessary to use a 7,000- or 8,000-lb. hammer. The following table will be found convenient for reference for the proper size of hammer to be used on different cla.s.ses of general blacksmith work, although it will be understood that it is necessary to modify these to suit conditions, as has already been indicated.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 18.--Burst from a piped center.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 19.--Result of using too light a hammer.]

Diameter of stock Size of hammer 3-1/2 in. 250 to 350 lb.

4 in. 350 to 600 lb.

4-1/2 in. 600 to 800 lb.

5 in. 800 to 1,000 lb.

6 in. 1,100 to 1,500 lb.

Steam hammers are always rated by the weight of the ram, and the attached parts, which include the piston and rod, nothing being added on account of the steam pressure behind the piston. This makes it a little difficult to compare them with plain drop or tilting hammers, which are also rated in the same way.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 20.--Good and bad ingots.]

Steam hammers are usually operated at pressures varying from 75 to 100 lb. of steam per square inch, and may also be operated by compressed air at about the same pressures. It is cheaper, however, in the case of compressed air to use pressures from 60 to 80 lb.

instead of going higher.

Forgings must, however, be made from sound billets if satisfactory results are to be secured. Figure 20 shows three cross-sections of which _A_ is sound, _B_ is badly piped and _C_ is worthless.

PLANT FOR FORGING RIFLE BARRELS

The forging of rifle barrels in large quant.i.ties and heat-treating them to meet the specifications demanded by some of the foreign governments led Wheelock, Lovejoy & Company to establish a complete plant for this purpose in connection with their warehouse in Cambridge, Ma.s.s. This plant, designed and constructed by their chief engineer, K. A. Juthe, had many interesting features. Many features of this plant can be modified for other cla.s.ses of work.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG 21.--Cutting up barrels.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 22.--Upsetting the ends.]

The stock, which came in bars of mill length, was cut off so as to make a barrel with the proper allowances for tr.i.m.m.i.n.g (Fig. 21).

They then pa.s.s to the forging or upsetting press in the adjoining room. This press, which is shown in more detail in Fig. 22, handled the barrels from all the heating furnaces shown. The men changed work at frequent intervals, to avoid excessive fatigue.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 23.--Continuous heating furnace.]

Then the barrels were reheated in the continuous furnace, shown in Fig. 23, and straightened before being tested.

The barrels were next tested for straightness. After the heat-treating, the ends are ground, a spot ground on the enlarged end and each barrel tested on a Brinell machine. The pressure used is 3,000 kg., or 6,614 lb., on a 10-millimeter ball, which is standard. Hardness of 240 was desired.

The heat-treating of the rifle blanks covered four separate operations: (1) Heating and soaking the steel above the critical temperature and quenching in oil to harden the steel through to the center; (2) reheating for drawing of temper for the purpose of meeting the physical specifications; (3) reheating to meet the machine ability test for production purposes; and (4) reheating to straighten the blanks while hot.

A short explanation of the necessity for the many heats may be interesting. For the first heat, the blanks were slowly brought to the required heat, which is about 150F. above the critical temperature. They are then soaked at a high heat for about 1 hr.

before quenching. The purpose of this treatment is to eliminate any rolling or heat stresses that might be in the bars from mill operations; also to insure a thorough even heat through a cross-section of the steel. This heat also causes blanks with seams or slight flaws to open up in quenching, making detection of defective blanks very easy.

The quenching oil was kept at a constant temperature of 100F., to avoid subjecting the steel to shocks, thereby causing surface cracks. The drawing of temper was the most critical operation and was kept within a 10 fluctuation. The degree of heat necessary depends entirely on the a.n.a.lysis of the steel, there being a certain variation in the different heats of steel as received from the mill.

MACHINEABILITY

Reheating for machine ability was done at 100 less than the drawing temperature, but the time of soaking is more than double. After both drawing and reheating, the blanks were buried in lime where they remain, out of contact with the air, until their temperature had dropped to that of the workroom.

For straightening, the barrels were heated to from 900 to 1,000F.

in an automatic furnace 25 ft. long, this operation taking about 2 hr. The purpose of hot straightening was to prevent any stresses being put into the blanks, so that after rough-turning, drilling or rifling operations they would not have a tendency to spring back to shape as left by the quenching bath.

A method that produces an even better machining rifle blank, which practically stays straight through the different machining operations, was to rough-turn the blanks, then subject them to a heat of practically 1,0000 for 4 hr. Production throughout the different operations is materially increased, with practically no straightening required after drilling, reaming, finish-turning or rifling operations.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 24. FIG. 25.

FIGS. 24 and 25.--Roof system of cooling quenching oil.]

This method was tested out by one of the largest manufacturers and proved to be the best way to eliminate a very expensive finished gun-barrel straightening process.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 26.--Details of the cooler.]

The heat-treating required a large amount of cooling oil, and the problem of keeping this at the proper temperature required considerable study. The result was the cooling plant on the roof, as shown in Figs. 24, 25 and 26. The first two ill.u.s.trations show the plant as it appeared complete. Figure 26 shows how the oil was handled in what is sometimes called the ebulator system. The oil was pumped up from the cooling tanks through the pipe _A_ to the tank _B_.

From here it ran down onto the breakers or separators _C_, which break the oil up into fine particles that are caught by the fans _D_. The spray is blown up into the cooling tower _E_, which contains banks of cooling pipes, as can be seen, as well as baffies _F_. The spray collects on the cool pipes and forms drops, which fall on the curved plates _G_ and run back to the oil-storage tank below ground.

The water for this cooling was pumped from 10 artesian wells at the rate of 60 gal. per minute and cooled 90 gal. of oil per minute, lowering the temperature from 130 or 140 to 100F. The water as it came from the wells averaged around 52F. The motor was of a 7-1/2-hp. variable-speed type with a range of from 700 to 1,200 r.p.m., which could be varied to suit the amount of oil to be cooled.

The plant handled 300 gal. of oil per minute.

CHAPTER VI

ANNEALING

There is no mystery or secret about the proper annealing of different steels, but in order to secure the best results it is absolutely necessary for the operator to know the kind of steel which is to be annealed. The annealing of steel is primarily done for one of three specific purposes: To soften for machining purposes; to change the physical properties, largely to increase ductility; or to release strains caused by rolling or forging.

Proper annealing means the heating of the steel slowly and uniformly to the right temperature, the holding of the temperature for a given period and the gradual cooling to normal temperature. The proper temperature depends on the kind of steel, and the suggestions of the maker of the special steel being used should be carefully followed.

For carbon steel the temperatures recommended for annealing vary from 1,450 to 1,600F. This temperature need not be long continued.

The steel should be cooled in hot sand, lime or ashes. If heated in the open forge the steel should be buried in the cooling material as quickly as possible, not allowing it to remain in the open air any longer than absolutely necessary. Best results, however, are secured when the fire does not come in direct contact with the steel.

Good results are obtained by packing the steel in iron boxes or tubes, much as for case-hardening or carbonizing, using the same materials. Pieces do not require to be entirely surrounded by carbon for annealing, however. Do not remove from boxes until cold.

Steel to be annealed may be cla.s.sified into four different groups, each of which must be treated according to the elements contained in its particular a.n.a.lysis. Different methods are therefore necessary to bring about the desired result. The cla.s.sifications are as follows: High-speed steel, alloy steel, tool or crucible steel, and high-carbon machinery steel.