The temperature to which this compound is subjected causes the liberation of carbon monoxide when in contact with hot charcoal.

Many more elaborate explanations may be given of the actions and reactions taking place, but the above is a satisfactory guide to indicate that it is not the actual compound which causes carburization, but the gases released from the compound.

Until the temperature of the m.u.f.fle reaches about 1,300F. carburization does not take place to any useful extent, and consequently it is advisable to avoid the use of any compound from which the carburizing gases are liberated much before that temperature is reached. In the case of steel containing nickel slightly higher temperatures may be used and are really necessary if the same rate of carbon penetration is to be obtained, as the presence of nickel resists the penetration.

At higher temperatures the rate of penetration is higher, but not exactly in proportion to the temperature, and the rate is also influenced by the nature of the material and the efficiency of the compound employed.

The so-called saturation point of mild steel is reached when the case contains 0.90 per cent of carbon, but this amount is frequently exceeded. Should it be required to ascertain the amount of carbon in a sample at varying depths below the skin this can be done by turning off a small amount after carburizing and a.n.a.lyzing the turnings. This can be repeated several times, and it will probably be found that the proportion of carbon decreases as the test piece is reduced in diameter unless decarburization has taken place.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 42.--Chart showing penetration of carbon.]

The chart, Fig. 42, is also a good guide.

In order to use the chart it is necessary to harden the sample we desire to test as we would harden a piece of tool steel, and then test by scleroscope. By locating on the chart the point on the horizontal axis which represents the hardness of the sample the curve enables one to determine the approximate amount of carbon present in the case.

Should the hardness lack uniformity the soft places can be identified by etching. To accomplish this the sample should be polished after quenching and then washed with a weak solution of nitric acid in alcohol, whereupon the harder points will show up darker than the softer areas.

The selection of suitable boxes for carburizing is worthy of a little consideration, and there can be no doubt that in certain cases results are spoiled and considerable expense caused by using unsuitable containers.

As far as initial expense goes cast-iron boxes are probably the most expedient, but although they will withstand the necessary temperatures they are liable to split and crack, and when they get out of shape there is much difficulty in straightening them.

The most suitable material in most cases is steel boiler plate 3/8 or 1/2 in. thick, which can be made with welded joints and will last well.

The sizes of the boxes employed depend to a great extent on the nature of the work being done, but care should be exercised to avoid putting too much in one box, as smaller ones permit the heat to penetrate more quickly, and one test piece is sufficient to give a good indication of what has taken place. If it should be necessary to use larger boxes it is advisable to put in three or four test pieces in different positions to ascertain if the penetration of carbon has been satisfactory in all parts of the box, as it is quite possible that the temperature of the m.u.f.fle is not the same at all points, and a record shown by one test piece would not then be applicable to all the parts contained in the box. It has been found that the rate of carbon penetration increases with the gas pressure around the articles being carburized, and it is therefore necessary to be careful in sealing up the boxes after packing. When the articles are placed within and each entirely surrounded by compound so that the compound reaches to within 1 in. of the top of the box a layer of clay should be run around the inside of the box on top of the compound. The lid, which should be a good fit in the box, is then to be pressed on top of this, and another layer of clay run just below the rim of the box on top of the cover.

A SATISFACTORY LUTING MIXTURE

A mixture of fireclay and sand will be found very satisfactory for closing up the boxes, and by observing the appearance of the work when taken out we can gage the suitability of the methods employed, for unless the boxes are carefully sealed the work is generally covered with dark scales, while if properly done the articles will be of a light gray.

By observing the above recommendations reliable results can be obtained, and we can expect uniform results after quenching.

GAS CONSUMPTION FOR CARBURIZING

Although the advantages offered by the gas-fired furnace for carburizing have been generally recognized in the past from points of view as close temperature regulation, decreased attendance, and greater convenience, very little information has been published regarding the consumption of gas for this process. It has therefore been a matter of great difficulty to obtain authentic information upon this point, either from makers or users of such furnaces.

In view of this, the details of actual consumption of gas on a regular customer's order job will be of interest. The "Revergen"

furnace, manufactured by the Davis Furnace Company, Luton, Bedford, England, was used on this job, and is provided with regenerators and fired with illuminating gas at ordinary pressure, the air being introduced to the furnace at a slight pressure of 3 to 4 in. water gage. The material was charged into a cold furnace, raised to 1,652F., and maintained at that temperature for 8 hr. to give the necessary depth of case. The work consisted of automobile gears packed in six boxes, the total weight being 713 lb. The required temperature of 1,652F. was obtained in 70 min. from lighting up, and a summary of the data is shown in the following table:

Cubic Foot Total Per Pound Number of of Load Cubic Foot Gas to raise furnace and charge from cold to 1,652F., 70 min. 1.29 925 Gas to maintain 1,652F. for 1st hour 0.38 275 Gas to maintain 1,652F. for 2nd hour 0.42 300 Gas to maintain 1,652F. for 3rd hour 0.38 275 Gas to maintain 1,652F. for 4th hour 0.42 300 Gas to maintain 1,652F. for 5th hour 0.49 350 Gas to maintain 1,652F. for 6th hour 0.49 350 Gas to maintain 1,652F. for 7th hour 0.45 325 Gas to maintain 1,652F. for 8th hour 0.45 325

The overall gas consumption for this run of 9 hr. 10 min. was only 4.8 cu. ft. per pound of load.

THE CARE OF CARBURIZING COMPOUNDS

Of all the opportunities for practicing economy in the heat-treatment department, there is none that offers greater possibilities for profitable returns than the systematic cleaning, blending and reworking of artificial carburizers, or compounds.

The question of whether or not it is practical to take up the work depends upon the nature of the output. If the sole product of the hardening department consists of a 1.10 carbon case or harder, requiring a strong highly energized material of deep penetrative power such as that used in the carburizing of ball races, hub-bearings and the like, it would be best to dispose of the used material to some concern whose product requires a case with from 0.70 to 0.90 carbon, but where there is a large variety of work the compound may be so handled that there will be practically no waste.

This is accomplished with one of the most widely known artificial carburizers by giving all the compound in the plant three distinct cla.s.sifications: "New," being direct from the maker; "half and half," being one part of new and one part first run; and "2 to 1,"

which consists of two parts of old and one part new.

SEPARATING THE WORK FROM THE COMPOUND

During the pulling of the heat, the pots are dumped upon a cast-iron screen which forms a table or ap.r.o.n for the furnace. Directly beneath this table is located one of the steel conveyor carts, shown in Fig.

43, which is provided with two wheels at the rear and a dolly clevis at the front, which allows it to be hauled away from beneath the furnace ap.r.o.n while filled with red-hot compound. A steel cover is provided for each box, and the material is allowed to cool without losing much of the evolved gases which are still being thrown off by the compound.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 43.--The cooling carts.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 44.--Machine for blending the mixture.]

As this compound comes from the carburizing pots it contains bits of fireclay which represent a part of the luting used for sealing, and there may be small parts of work or bits of fused material in it as well. After cooling, the compound is very dusty and disagreeable to handle, and, before it can be used again, must be sifted, cleaned and blended.

Some time ago the writer was confronted with this proposition for one of the largest consumers of carburizing compound in the world, and the problem was handled in the following manner: The cooled compound was dumped from the cooling cars and sprinkled with a low-grade oil which served the dual purposes of settling the dust and adding a certain percentage of valuable hydrocarbon to the compound. In Fig. 44 is shown the machine that was designed to do the cleaning and blending.

BLENDING THE COMPOUND

Essentially, this consists of the st.u.r.dy, power-driven separator and fanning mill which separates the foreign matter from the compound and elevates it into a large settling basin which is formed by the top of the steel housing that incloses the apparatus. After reaching the settling basin, the compound falls by gravity into a power-driven rotary mixing tub which is directly beneath the settling basin. Here the blending is done by mixing the proper amount of various grades of material together. After blending the compound, it is ready to be stored in labeled containers and delivered to the packing room.

It will be seen that by this simple system there is the least possible loss of energy from the compound. The saving commences the moment the cooling cart is covered and preserves the valuable dust which is saved by the oiling and the settling basin of the blending machine.

Then, too, there is the added convenience of the packers who have a thoroughly cleaned, dustless, and standardized product to work with. Of course, this also tends to insure uniformity in the case-hardening operation.

With this outfit, one man cleans and blends as much compound in one hour as he formerly did in ten.

CHAPTER VII

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

Heat treatment consists in heating and cooling metal at definite rates in order to change its physical condition. Many objects may be attained by correct heat treatment, but nothing much can be expected unless the man who directs the operations knows what is the essential difference in a piece of steel at room temperature and at a red heat, other than the obvious fact that it is hot. The science of metallography has been developed in the past 25 years, and aided by precise methods of measuring temperature, has done much to systematize the information which we possess on metallic alloys, and steel in particular.

CRITICAL POINTS

One of the most important means of investigating the properties of pure metals and their alloys is by an examination of their heating and cooling curves. Such curves are constructed by taking a small piece and observing and recording the temperature of the ma.s.s at uniform intervals of time during a _uniform_ heating or cooling.

These observations, when plotted in the form of a curve will show whether the temperature of the ma.s.s rises or falls uniformly.

The heat which a body absorbs serves either to raise the temperature of the ma.s.s or change its physical condition. That portion of the heat which results in an increase in temperature of the body is called "sensible heat," inasmuch as such a gain in heat is apparent to the physical senses of the observer. If heat were supplied to the body at a uniform rate, the temperature would rise continuously, and if the temperature were plotted against time, a smooth rising curve would result. Or, if sensible heat were abstracted from the body at a uniform rate, a time-temperature curve would again be a smooth falling curve. Such a curve is called a "cooling curve."

However, we find that when a body is melting, vaporizing, or otherwise suffering an abrupt change in physical properties, a quant.i.ty of heat is absorbed which disappears without changing the temperature of the body. This heat absorbed during a change of state is called "latent heat," because it is transformed into the work necessary to change the configuration and disposition of the molecules in the body; but it is again liberated in equal amount when the reverse change takes place.

From these considerations it would seem that should the cooling curve be continuous and smooth, following closely a regular course, all the heat abstracted during cooling is furnished at the expense of a fall in temperature of the body; that is to say, it disappears as "sensible heat." These curves, however, frequently show horizontal portions or "arrests" which denote that at that temperature all of the heat constantly radiating is being supplied by internal changes in the alloy itself; that is, it is being supplied by the evolution of a certain amount of "latent heat."

In addition to the large amount of heat liberated when a metal solidifies, there are other changes indicated by the thermal a.n.a.lysis of many alloys which occur _after_ the body has become entirely solidified. These so-called transformation points or ranges may be caused by chemical reactions taking place within the solid, substances being precipitated from a "solid solution," or a sudden change in some physical property of the components, such as in magnetism, hardness, or specific gravity.

It may be difficult to comprehend that such changes can occur in a body after it has become entirely solidified, owing to the usual conception that the particles are then rigidly fixed. However, this rigidity is only comparative. The molecules in the solid state have not the large mobility they possess as a liquid, but even so, they are still moving in circ.u.mscribed orbits, and have the power, under proper conditions, to rearrange their position or internal configuration. In general, such rearrangement is accompanied by a sudden change in some physical property and in the total energy of the molecule, which is evidenced by a spontaneous evolution or absorption of latent heat.