Increasingly, the war came home to Germany, as Allied bombing fleets gained domination of the skies and brought devastation to Germany's cities. Until things began to go badly wrong in the war, the Nazis managed to pull the great mass of the German people along with them. German nationalism, belief in the greatness of Germany and resentment at the Peace Settlement of 1919 were present in every part of the population. They were behind the mass and undoubtedly genuine euphoria that greeted Germany's stunning military successes in 1939-40 and in a grimmer mood they sustained a large part of the German resistance to the Soviet invasion in 1944-5. Until the summer of 1944 cultural institutions and the mass media continued to offer a mixture of morale-boosting encouragement and soul-soothing escapism to the Germans at home, while food supplies and the basics of everyday life were sustained almost to the end. But the mass destruction of Germany's towns and cities that began in earnest in 1943 turned people against the Nazi regime even more than the realization after Stalingrad that the war was lost. The Nazi regime responded to disillusion at home and the decline of morale in the armed forces by intensifying the repression and terror that had always been a central part of its rule. The element of martyrdom and self-sacrifice in Nazi ideology was intensified too. Small numbers of Germans began to resist, but the only group capable of overthrowing Hitler, the military resistance, failed in the attempt in July 1944, inaugurating a further intensification of terror and destruction that ended in the downfall of the Third Reich just over nine months later.

The violence at the core of Nazism had in the end been turned back on Germany itself. As the German people - above all, German women - cleared away the last of the rubble, they began to experience something like a return to normality, reflected in the political and social atmosphere of the 1950s, with its emphasis on family values, material prosperity, social order, political stability and selective amnesia about the Nazi past. For many middle-aged and older Germans, there had been no real normality since before the First World War. Military conflict and material privation had been succeeded by revolution, hyperinflation, political violence, economic depression, dictatorship and war all over again. But the normality of the 1950s was also a new kind of normality. The Third Reich and the war it unleashed had changed many things. Nazism's promise of social equality was implemented, in ways it had not foreseen, during and after the war: the ferocious attack it launched on the German aristocracy after 20 July 1944, coupled with the breakup of the larger landed estates by the Allies after 1945 and the suppression of the Prussian military tradition at the same time, broke what remained of the social and political power of the titled nobility.

At the other end of the social scale, Nazism had destroyed the long-established traditions of the labour movement, already severely weakened by the Depression of 1929- 33. Older workers quickly reorganized themselves into unions, reformed the Communist and Social Democratic Parties and launched a series of strikes in 1947 with the demand for the socialization of the means of production; but they had little support from the younger generations of workers, who had never belonged to a union or a left-wing party, and only wanted social peace and material prosperity. The strikes failed, the Communist Party in West Germany lost virtually all its support and was eventually banned, the Social Democrats abandoned their Marxist heritage in 1959, and the decline of heavy industry and the rise of a consumer society completed the process. In East Germany the flight of millions of professionals to the west and the egalitarian policies of the Communist regime created the same effect, albeit at a lower level of material prosperity. The old-style class-conflict that Nazism had put such store by overcoming had finally vanished. Germany had become a levelled-down, middle-class society, differing in its nature from east to west, but sharing a common transcendence of traditional class structures.

The power of nationalism had also been broken, so thoroughly that when elderly Germans came towards the end of the century to look back on the Third Reich and ask themselves why they had supported it, they could no longer remember that one of the main reasons had been because they had thought that it made Germany great again.277 Germany, as the public celebrations accompanying its reunification in 1989- 90 showed, may not have become a fully postnational society. The strong support of the vast majority of Germans for European integration may have been tempered by a continuing self-identification as Germans. But to be German in the second half of the twentieth century meant something very different from what it had meant in the first half: it meant, among other things, to be peace-loving, democratic, prosperous and stable, and it also meant having a critical attitude towards the German past, having a sense of responsibility for the death and destruction that Nazism caused, even feeling guilty about it. Germany, as the public celebrations accompanying its reunification in 1989- 90 showed, may not have become a fully postnational society. The strong support of the vast majority of Germans for European integration may have been tempered by a continuing self-identification as Germans. But to be German in the second half of the twentieth century meant something very different from what it had meant in the first half: it meant, among other things, to be peace-loving, democratic, prosperous and stable, and it also meant having a critical attitude towards the German past, having a sense of responsibility for the death and destruction that Nazism caused, even feeling guilty about it.278 These matters continued to be widely debated, of course, and some at least also regarded the Germans themselves as victims of the Second World War. Yet in the early twenty-first century, Germany's capital city has a large public memorial to the Jewish victims of Nazism at its very centre, German concentration camps have become public museums to Nazi atrocities, and on the streets of a growing number of German towns and cities brass plates have been put on to the pavements outside houses and shops that belonged to Jews before 1933, with the names of their former owners inscribed on them. German historians have exposed the long-denied involvement of many sectors of the German population in the crimes of the Third Reich, from the officers and men of the army to the doctors and scientists who staffed Germany's hospitals and research institutes. Former slave labourers have launched successful actions to gain recognition and a small amount of compensation for their sufferings, and the businesses and companies that profited from the Nazi regime and its policies have opened their archives and admitted their complicity. Artworks and cultural objects expropriated from their Jewish owners under the Third Reich have been catalogued and galleries, museums and state authorities have opened the way for the restitution of those that have not yet been returned.

Not only historical knowledge about the Third Reich, but also public consciousness of what it did, has increased with distance in time from the Nazi regime; yet that regime has not lost any of its power to excite moral debate, rather, if anything, the reverse. Not long after the Second World War was over, the English historian Alan Bullock ended his great biography of Hitler by quoting the words inscribed on the tomb of the architect Sir Christopher Wren in the church he built in London, St Paul's Cathedral: Si monumentum requiris, circumspice Si monumentum requiris, circumspice - 'If you need a memorial, look around.' - 'If you need a memorial, look around.'279 In 1952, when Bullock published his book, the destruction wrought by the war was still to be seen in almost every part of Europe. More than half a century later, this is no longer the case. Bomb-sites have been cleared, battlefields levelled out, divisions healed, peace and prosperity restored to Europe. Most of those who lived through the Third Reich and fought in its wars are no longer with us. Within a few decades there will be no one left who remembers it at first hand. And yet its legacy is still alive in myriad ways. History does not repeat itself: there will be no Fourth Reich. Neo-Nazism still finds its supporters, but nowhere has it shown any signs of even coming close to achieving real political power. The legacy of the Third Reich is much wider. It extends far beyond Germany and Europe. The Third Reich raises in the most acute form the possibilities and consequences of the human hatred and destructiveness that exist, even if only in a small way, within all of us. It demonstrates with terrible clarity the ultimate potential consequences of racism, militarism and authoritarianism. It shows what can happen if some people are treated as less human than others. It poses in the most extreme possible form the moral dilemmas we all face at one time or another in our lives, of conformity or resistance, action or inaction in the particular situations with which we are confronted. That is why the Third Reich will not go away, but continues to command the attention of thinking people throughout the world long after it has passed into history. In 1952, when Bullock published his book, the destruction wrought by the war was still to be seen in almost every part of Europe. More than half a century later, this is no longer the case. Bomb-sites have been cleared, battlefields levelled out, divisions healed, peace and prosperity restored to Europe. Most of those who lived through the Third Reich and fought in its wars are no longer with us. Within a few decades there will be no one left who remembers it at first hand. And yet its legacy is still alive in myriad ways. History does not repeat itself: there will be no Fourth Reich. Neo-Nazism still finds its supporters, but nowhere has it shown any signs of even coming close to achieving real political power. The legacy of the Third Reich is much wider. It extends far beyond Germany and Europe. The Third Reich raises in the most acute form the possibilities and consequences of the human hatred and destructiveness that exist, even if only in a small way, within all of us. It demonstrates with terrible clarity the ultimate potential consequences of racism, militarism and authoritarianism. It shows what can happen if some people are treated as less human than others. It poses in the most extreme possible form the moral dilemmas we all face at one time or another in our lives, of conformity or resistance, action or inaction in the particular situations with which we are confronted. That is why the Third Reich will not go away, but continues to command the attention of thinking people throughout the world long after it has passed into history.

Notes.

Chapter 1. 'BEASTS IN HUMAN FORM'.1 . Basic information from Paul Latawski, 'Polish Campaign', in Ian C. B. Dear (ed.), . Basic information from Paul Latawski, 'Polish Campaign', in Ian C. B. Dear (ed.), The Oxford Companion to World War II The Oxford Companion to World War II (Oxford, 2005 [1995]), 705 - 8; and Ian C. B. Dear, 'Animals', in ibid., 28-9; detailed account in Horst Rohde, 'Hitler's First Blitzkrieg and Its Consequences for North-eastern Europe', in Milit*rgeschichtliches Forschungsamt (ed.), (Oxford, 2005 [1995]), 705 - 8; and Ian C. B. Dear, 'Animals', in ibid., 28-9; detailed account in Horst Rohde, 'Hitler's First Blitzkrieg and Its Consequences for North-eastern Europe', in Milit*rgeschichtliches Forschungsamt (ed.), Germany and the Second World War Germany and the Second World War (10 vols., Oxford, 1990-; hereafter (10 vols., Oxford, 1990-; hereafter GSWW GSWW), II. 67-150 (table of German troop deployments at 92). For Hitler's orders, see Walther Hubatsch (ed.), Hitlers Weisungen f*r die Kriegf*hrung 1939-1945. Dokumente des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht Hitlers Weisungen f*r die Kriegf*hrung 1939-1945. Dokumente des Oberkommandos der Wehrmacht (Frankfurt am Main, 1962), 17 - 19. (Frankfurt am Main, 1962), 17 - 19.

2 . Latawski, 'Polish Campaign'; Rohde, 'Hitler's First Blitzkrieg', 101 - 18; brisk account in Gerhard L. Weinberg, . Latawski, 'Polish Campaign'; Rohde, 'Hitler's First Blitzkrieg', 101 - 18; brisk account in Gerhard L. Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (Cambridge, 2005 [1994]), 48-64; also J'zef Garlinski, (Cambridge, 2005 [1994]), 48-64; also J'zef Garlinski, Poland in the Second World War Poland in the Second World War (London, 1985), 11 - 24; Wolfgang Jacobmeyer, 'Der U (London, 1985), 11 - 24; Wolfgang Jacobmeyer, 'Der U*berfall auf Polen und der neue Charakter des Krieges', in Christoph Klessmann (ed.), September 1939: Krieg, Besatzung, Widerstand in Polen: Acht Beitr*ge September 1939: Krieg, Besatzung, Widerstand in Polen: Acht Beitr*ge (G*ttingen, 1989), 16-37, at 19-20; for the alleged Polish cavalry charges, see Patrick Wright, (G*ttingen, 1989), 16-37, at 19-20; for the alleged Polish cavalry charges, see Patrick Wright, Tank: The Progress of a Monstrous War Machine Tank: The Progress of a Monstrous War Machine (London, 2000), 231 - 7. (London, 2000), 231 - 7.

3 . William L. Shirer, . William L. Shirer, Berlin Diary Berlin Diary (London, 1970 [1941]), 167 - 8. (London, 1970 [1941]), 167 - 8.

4 . Contemporary details in Alcuin (pseud.), . Contemporary details in Alcuin (pseud.), I Saw Poland Suffer, by a Polish Doctor Who Held an Official Position in Warsaw under German Occupation I Saw Poland Suffer, by a Polish Doctor Who Held an Official Position in Warsaw under German Occupation (London, 1941), 15; eyewitness reports in Dieter Bach and Wieslaw Lesiuk, (London, 1941), 15; eyewitness reports in Dieter Bach and Wieslaw Lesiuk, Ich sah in das Gesicht eines Menschen: Deutsch-polnische Begegnungen vor und nach 1945 Ich sah in das Gesicht eines Menschen: Deutsch-polnische Begegnungen vor und nach 1945 (Wuppertal, 1995), 81 - 104. (Wuppertal, 1995), 81 - 104.

5 . Chaim A. Kaplan, . Chaim A. Kaplan, Scroll of Agony: The Warsaw Diary of Chaim A. Kaplan Scroll of Agony: The Warsaw Diary of Chaim A. Kaplan (London, 1966), 20 (28 September 1939); the same scenes were also recorded by Adam Czerniakow, (London, 1966), 20 (28 September 1939); the same scenes were also recorded by Adam Czerniakow, The Warsaw Diary of Adam Czerniakow: Prelude to Doom The Warsaw Diary of Adam Czerniakow: Prelude to Doom (New York, 1979 [1968]), 77 (28 September 1939). (New York, 1979 [1968]), 77 (28 September 1939).

6 . Zygmunt Klukowski, . Zygmunt Klukowski, Diary from the Years of Occupation 1939-44 Diary from the Years of Occupation 1939-44 (Urbana, Ill., 1993 [1958]), vii - x, 16 - 17 (paragraphing dissolved). (Urbana, Ill., 1993 [1958]), vii - x, 16 - 17 (paragraphing dissolved).

7 . Ibid., 17. . Ibid., 17.

8 . Ibid., 22. . Ibid., 22.

9 . Richard J. Evans, . Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power 1933 - 1939 The Third Reich in Power 1933 - 1939 (London, 2005), 689 - 95. (London, 2005), 689 - 95.

10 . Rohde, 'Hitler's First Blitzkrieg', 118-26; Weinberg, . Rohde, 'Hitler's First Blitzkrieg', 118-26; Weinberg, A World at Arms A World at Arms, 60-63, details these border adjustments and the negotiations that preceded them.

11 . Rohde, 'Hitler's First Blitzkrieg', 122 - 6; Garlinski, . Rohde, 'Hitler's First Blitzkrieg', 122 - 6; Garlinski, Poland Poland, 25.

12 . Ian Kershaw, . Ian Kershaw, Hitler Hitler, II: 1936 - 1945: Nemesis 1936 - 1945: Nemesis (London, 2000), 235 - 9. (London, 2000), 235 - 9.

13 . Shirer, . Shirer, Berlin Diary Berlin Diary, 173.

14 . Klaus Behnken (ed.), . Klaus Behnken (ed.), Deutschland-Berichte der Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands (Sopade) 1934 - 1940 Deutschland-Berichte der Sozialdemokratischen Partei Deutschlands (Sopade) 1934 - 1940 (7 vols., Frankfurt am Main, 1980), VI: (7 vols., Frankfurt am Main, 1980), VI: 1939 1939, 980 - 82.

15 . Heinz Boberach (ed.), . Heinz Boberach (ed.), Meldungen aus dem Reich: Die geheimen Lageberichte des Sicherheitsdienstes der SS 1938-1945 Meldungen aus dem Reich: Die geheimen Lageberichte des Sicherheitsdienstes der SS 1938-1945 (17 vols., Herrsching, 1984), II. 339 (Bericht zur innenpolitischen Lage (Nr. 2), 11 October 1939); Shirer, (17 vols., Herrsching, 1984), II. 339 (Bericht zur innenpolitischen Lage (Nr. 2), 11 October 1939); Shirer, Berlin Diary Berlin Diary, 182 - 4.

16 . Martin Broszat, . Martin Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik (Frankfurt am Main, 1965), 46 - 8. (Frankfurt am Main, 1965), 46 - 8.

17 . Melita Maschmann, . Melita Maschmann, Account Rendered: A Dossier on my Former Self Account Rendered: A Dossier on my Former Self (London, 1964), 58 - 60. (London, 1964), 58 - 60.

18 . Helmut Krausnick, . Helmut Krausnick, Hitlers Einsatzgruppen: Die Truppen des Weltanschauungskrieges 1938 - 1942 Hitlers Einsatzgruppen: Die Truppen des Weltanschauungskrieges 1938 - 1942 (Frankfurt am Main, 1985 [1981]), 267 n. 140; Broszat, (Frankfurt am Main, 1985 [1981]), 267 n. 140; Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 51.

19 . Kershaw, . Kershaw, Hitler Hitler, II. 241-3; Wlodzimierz Jastrzebski, Der Bromberger Blutsonntag: Legende und Wirklichkeit Der Bromberger Blutsonntag: Legende und Wirklichkeit (Poznan', 1990); G*nter Schubert, (Poznan', 1990); G*nter Schubert, Das Unternehmen 'Bromberger Blutsonntag': Tod einer Legende Das Unternehmen 'Bromberger Blutsonntag': Tod einer Legende (Cologne, 1989). The official German Foreign Office publication of alleged Polish atrocities gave a total of 5,437 murders of Germans by Poles: Ausw*rtiges Amt (ed.), (Cologne, 1989). The official German Foreign Office publication of alleged Polish atrocities gave a total of 5,437 murders of Germans by Poles: Ausw*rtiges Amt (ed.), Die polnischen Greueltaten an den Volksdeutschen in Polen Die polnischen Greueltaten an den Volksdeutschen in Polen (Berlin, 1940), 5. (Berlin, 1940), 5.

20 . See the material compiled by two Polish war crimes prosecutors, Tadeusz Cyprian and Jerzy Sawicki, . See the material compiled by two Polish war crimes prosecutors, Tadeusz Cyprian and Jerzy Sawicki, Nazi Rule in Poland 1939 - 1945 Nazi Rule in Poland 1939 - 1945 (Warsaw, 1961), 11 - 70. (Warsaw, 1961), 11 - 70.

21 . Evans, . Evans, The Third Reich in Power The Third Reich in Power, 614 - 15, 652 - 3, 678 - 88.

22 . Gu*nter Berndt and Reinhard Strecker (eds.), . Gu*nter Berndt and Reinhard Strecker (eds.), Polen - ein Schauerma*rchen oder Gehirnwa*sche f*r Generationen: Geschichtsschreibung und Schulb*cher: Beitr*ge zum Polenbild der Deutschen Polen - ein Schauerma*rchen oder Gehirnwa*sche f*r Generationen: Geschichtsschreibung und Schulb*cher: Beitr*ge zum Polenbild der Deutschen (Reinbek, 1971); Jacobmeyer, 'Der *berfall', 18. See also Antony Polonsky, 'The German Occupation of Poland during the First and Second World Wars', in Roy A. Prete and A. Hamish Ion (eds.), (Reinbek, 1971); Jacobmeyer, 'Der *berfall', 18. See also Antony Polonsky, 'The German Occupation of Poland during the First and Second World Wars', in Roy A. Prete and A. Hamish Ion (eds.), Armies of Occupation Armies of Occupation (Waterloo, Ontario, 1984), 97-142. (Waterloo, Ontario, 1984), 97-142.

23 . Broszat, . Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 9-13; Evans, The Third Reich in Power The Third Reich in Power, 619, 689 - 92; Christoph Klessmann, Die Selbstbehauptung einer Nation: Nationalsozialistische Kulturpolitik und polnische Widerstandsbewegung im Generalgouvernement 1939 - 1945 Die Selbstbehauptung einer Nation: Nationalsozialistische Kulturpolitik und polnische Widerstandsbewegung im Generalgouvernement 1939 - 1945 (D*sseldorf, 1971), 27 - 32. (D*sseldorf, 1971), 27 - 32.

24 . Quoted in Jacobmeyer, 'Der *berfall', 16 - 17; see also Winfried Baumgart, 'Zur Ansprache Hitlers vor den F*hrern der Wehrmacht am 22. August 1939', . Quoted in Jacobmeyer, 'Der *berfall', 16 - 17; see also Winfried Baumgart, 'Zur Ansprache Hitlers vor den F*hrern der Wehrmacht am 22. August 1939', Vierteljahrshefte f*r Zeitgeschichte Vierteljahrshefte f*r Zeitgeschichte (hereafter (hereafter VfZ VfZ) 16 (1968), 120 - 49, and idem, and Hermann Boehm, 'Zur Ansprache Hitlers vor den F*hrern der Wehrmacht am 22. August 1939', VfZ VfZ 19 (1971), 294 - 304. 19 (1971), 294 - 304.

25 . Elke Fr*hlich (ed.), . Elke Fr*hlich (ed.), Die Tagebu*cher von Joseph Goebbels Die Tagebu*cher von Joseph Goebbels I: I: Aufzeichnungen 1923-1941 Aufzeichnungen 1923-1941 (9 vols.); II: (9 vols.); II: Diktate 1941 - 1945 Diktate 1941 - 1945 (15 vols.) (Munich, 1993 - 2000), I/VII. 147 (10 October 1939). (15 vols.) (Munich, 1993 - 2000), I/VII. 147 (10 October 1939).

26 . Hans-Gu*nter Seraphim (ed.), . Hans-Gu*nter Seraphim (ed.), Das Politische Tagebuch Alfred Rosenbergs aus den Jahren 1934/35 und 1939/40 Das Politische Tagebuch Alfred Rosenbergs aus den Jahren 1934/35 und 1939/40 (Munich, 1964), 98-100; see more generally Tomasz Szarota, 'Poland and Poles in German Eyes during World War II', (Munich, 1964), 98-100; see more generally Tomasz Szarota, 'Poland and Poles in German Eyes during World War II', Polish Western Affairs Polish Western Affairs, 19 (1978), 229-54, and Alexander B. Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland: Blitzkrieg, Ideology, and Atrocity Hitler Strikes Poland: Blitzkrieg, Ideology, and Atrocity (Lawrence, Kans., 2003), 1 - 28. (Lawrence, Kans., 2003), 1 - 28.

27 . Helmut Krausnick, 'Hitler und die Morde in Polen: Ein Beitrag zum Konflikt zwischen Heer und SS um die Verwaltung der besetzten Gebiete (Dokumentation)', . Helmut Krausnick, 'Hitler und die Morde in Polen: Ein Beitrag zum Konflikt zwischen Heer und SS um die Verwaltung der besetzten Gebiete (Dokumentation)', VfZ VfZ 11 (1963), 196 - 209. 11 (1963), 196 - 209.

28 . Broszat, . Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 13-37; for the administration of these areas, see ibid., 49-60; for the status of the General Government and the nature of its administration, ibid., 68 - 74; more detail in Czeslaw Madajczyk, Die Okkupationspolitik Nazideutschlands in Polen 1939 - 1945 Die Okkupationspolitik Nazideutschlands in Polen 1939 - 1945 (Cologne, 1988 [1970]), 18 - 29, 30 - 44; for Frank, see Richard J. Evans, (Cologne, 1988 [1970]), 18 - 29, 30 - 44; for Frank, see Richard J. Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich The Coming of the Third Reich (London, 2003), 179; Christoph Klessmann, 'Der Generalgouverneur Hans Frank', (London, 2003), 179; Christoph Klessmann, 'Der Generalgouverneur Hans Frank', VfZ VfZ 19 (1971), 245-60; and Martyn Housden, 19 (1971), 245-60; and Martyn Housden, Hans Frank: Lebensraum and the Holocaust Hans Frank: Lebensraum and the Holocaust (London, 2003), 1 - 76 (marred by gratuitous moralizing); for Forster, see Dieter Schenk, (London, 2003), 1 - 76 (marred by gratuitous moralizing); for Forster, see Dieter Schenk, Hitlers Mann in Danzig: Gauleiter Forster und die NS-Verbrechen in Danzig-Westpreussen Hitlers Mann in Danzig: Gauleiter Forster und die NS-Verbrechen in Danzig-Westpreussen (Bonn, 2000). For a good recent account, see Mark Mazower, (Bonn, 2000). For a good recent account, see Mark Mazower, Hitler's Empire: Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe Hitler's Empire: Nazi Rule in Occupied Europe (London, 2008), 63 - 77. (London, 2008), 63 - 77.

29 . Jan T. Gross, . Jan T. Gross, Polish Society under German Occupation: The Generalgouvernement 1939-1944 Polish Society under German Occupation: The Generalgouvernement 1939-1944 (Princeton, N.J., 1979), 45-53; Frank relayed these views on 21 October 1939: see Werner Pr*g and Wolfgang Jacobmeyer (eds.), (Princeton, N.J., 1979), 45-53; Frank relayed these views on 21 October 1939: see Werner Pr*g and Wolfgang Jacobmeyer (eds.), Das Diensttagebuch des deutschen Generalgouverneurs in Polen 1939 -1945 Das Diensttagebuch des deutschen Generalgouverneurs in Polen 1939 -1945 (Stuttgart, 1975), 52- 3; see also the report in Franz Halder, (Stuttgart, 1975), 52- 3; see also the report in Franz Halder, Kriegstagebuch Kriegstagebuch (ed. Hans-Adolf Jacobsen, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1962 - 4), I. 107. (ed. Hans-Adolf Jacobsen, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1962 - 4), I. 107.

30 . Christian Jansen and Arno Weckbecker, 'Eine Miliz im "Weltanschauungskrieg": Der "Volksdeutsche Selbstschutz" in Polen 1939/40', in Wolfgang Michalka (ed.), . Christian Jansen and Arno Weckbecker, 'Eine Miliz im "Weltanschauungskrieg": Der "Volksdeutsche Selbstschutz" in Polen 1939/40', in Wolfgang Michalka (ed.), Der Zweite Weltkrieg: Analysen - Grundzu*ge - Forschungsbilanz Der Zweite Weltkrieg: Analysen - Grundzu*ge - Forschungsbilanz (Munich, 1989), 482 - 500, at 490, cited in Kershaw, (Munich, 1989), 482 - 500, at 490, cited in Kershaw, Hitler Hitler, II. 242 - 3.

31 . Jansen and Weckbecker, 'Eine Miliz'; more detail in the same authors' . Jansen and Weckbecker, 'Eine Miliz'; more detail in the same authors' Der 'Volksdeutsche Selbstschutz' in Polen 1939/40 Der 'Volksdeutsche Selbstschutz' in Polen 1939/40 (Munich, 1992); Broszat, (Munich, 1992); Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 60-62; and Hans Umbreit, Deutsche Milit*rverwaltungen 1938/39: Die milit*rische Besetzung der Tschechoslowakei und Polens Deutsche Milit*rverwaltungen 1938/39: Die milit*rische Besetzung der Tschechoslowakei und Polens (Stuttgart, 1977), 176 - 8. (Stuttgart, 1977), 176 - 8.

32 . Michael Wildt, . Michael Wildt, Generation des Unbedingten: Das F*hrungskorps des Reichssicherheitshauptamtes Generation des Unbedingten: Das F*hrungskorps des Reichssicherheitshauptamtes (Hamburg, 2002), 209-415; Saul Friedl*nder, (Hamburg, 2002), 209-415; Saul Friedl*nder, The Years of Extermination: The Third Reich and the Jews 1939 - 194 The Years of Extermination: The Third Reich and the Jews 1939 - 194 (New York, 2007), 679 - 81 n. 23. (New York, 2007), 679 - 81 n. 23.

33 . Helmut Groscurth, . Helmut Groscurth, Tageb*cher eines Abwehroffiziers 1938-1940 Tageb*cher eines Abwehroffiziers 1938-1940 (ed. Helmut Krausnick and Harold C. Deutsch, Stuttgart, 1970), 201 (8 September 1939). (ed. Helmut Krausnick and Harold C. Deutsch, Stuttgart, 1970), 201 (8 September 1939).

34 . Kershaw, . Kershaw, Hitler Hitler, II. 243; Groscurth, Tageb*cher Tageb*cher, 202 (9 September 1939).

35 . Halder, . Halder, Kriegstagebuch Kriegstagebuch, I. 79 (19 September 1939), 81 (20 September 1939), 107 (18 October 1939); Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland Hitler Strikes Poland, 14-16; see also Heydrich's later reference to Hitler's order to exterminate the Polish intelligentsia in Krausnick, 'Hitler und die Morde in Polen'.

36 . Broszat, . Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 221 - 2.

37 . Krausnick, . Krausnick, Hitlers Einsatzgruppen Hitlers Einsatzgruppen, 13-25; Wildt, Generation des Unbedingten Generation des Unbedingten, 420-28; Evans, The Third Reich in Power The Third Reich in Power, 656 - 61, 678 - 9, 685 for Austria and Czechoslovakia.

38 . Evans, . Evans, The Coming of the Third Reich The Coming of the Third Reich, 274; idem, The Third Reich in Power The Third Reich in Power, 44, 52, 116; Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland Hitler Strikes Poland, 10 - 16.

39 . Ibid., 29-57; see also Jens Banach, . Ibid., 29-57; see also Jens Banach, Heydrichs Elite: Das F*hrerkorps der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD, 1936 - 1945 Heydrichs Elite: Das F*hrerkorps der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD, 1936 - 1945 (Paderborn, 1998). (Paderborn, 1998).

40 . Rossino, . Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland Hitler Strikes Poland, 29 - 57; for von Woyrsch, see Evans, The Third Reich in Power The Third Reich in Power, 36.

41 . Quoted in Krausnick, . Quoted in Krausnick, Hitlers Einsatzgruppen Hitlers Einsatzgruppen, 29; also Kurt P*tzold (ed.), Verfolgung, Vertreibung, Vernichtung: Dokumente des faschistischen Antisemitismus 1933 bis 1942 Verfolgung, Vertreibung, Vernichtung: Dokumente des faschistischen Antisemitismus 1933 bis 1942 (Frankfurt am Main, 1984), 234. (Frankfurt am Main, 1984), 234.

42 . Krausnick, . Krausnick, Hitlers Einsatzgruppen Hitlers Einsatzgruppen, 31-4; Umbreit, Deutsche Milit*rverwaltungen Deutsche Milit*rverwaltungen, 162 - 73.

43 . Krausnick, . Krausnick, Hitlers Einsatzgruppen Hitlers Einsatzgruppen, 35-51; Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland Hitler Strikes Poland, 59-74; Jastrzebski, Der Bromberger Blutsonntag Der Bromberger Blutsonntag.

44 . Klukowski, . Klukowski, Diary Diary, 68.

45 . Ibid., 90 - 99 (21 June 1940). . Ibid., 90 - 99 (21 June 1940).

46 . Alcuin (pseud.), . Alcuin (pseud.), I Saw Poland Suffer I Saw Poland Suffer, 73.

47 . Broszat, . Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 44.

48 . Jon Evans, . Jon Evans, The Nazi New Order in Poland The Nazi New Order in Poland (London, 1941), 51; the same incident also in Francis Aldor, (London, 1941), 51; the same incident also in Francis Aldor, Germany's 'Death Space': The Polish Tragedy Germany's 'Death Space': The Polish Tragedy (London, 1940), 187 - 92, based on accounts from Polish exiles in Paris. (London, 1940), 187 - 92, based on accounts from Polish exiles in Paris.

49 . Rossino, . Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland Hitler Strikes Poland, 87.

50 . The obsession with . The obsession with franc-tireurs franc-tireurs is a central theme in Jochen B*hler, is a central theme in Jochen B*hler, Auftakt zum Vernichtungskrieg: Die Wehrmacht in Polen 1939 Auftakt zum Vernichtungskrieg: Die Wehrmacht in Polen 1939 (Frankfurt am Main, 2006), 54-168. For the terror more generally, see Madajczyk, (Frankfurt am Main, 2006), 54-168. For the terror more generally, see Madajczyk, Die Okkupationspolitik Die Okkupationspolitik, 186 - 215.

51 . Quoted in Krausnick, . Quoted in Krausnick, Hitlers Einsatzgruppen Hitlers Einsatzgruppen, 271 n. 177.

52 . Keith Sword, 'Poland', in Dear (ed.), . Keith Sword, 'Poland', in Dear (ed.), The Oxford Companion to World War II The Oxford Companion to World War II, 696; also Szymon Datner, 'Crimes Committed by the Wehrmacht during the September Campaign and the Period of Military Government (1 Sept. 1939-25 Oct. 1939)', Polish Western Affairs Polish Western Affairs, 3 (1962), 294 - 328; and Umbreit, Deutsche Milit*rverwaltungen Deutsche Milit*rverwaltungen, 197 - 9.

53 . Karl Malthes, in . Karl Malthes, in IR 309 marchiert an den Feind: Erlebnisberichte aus dem Polenfeldzuge 1939 IR 309 marchiert an den Feind: Erlebnisberichte aus dem Polenfeldzuge 1939 (ed. Oberst Dr Hoffmann, Berlin, 1940), 158. (ed. Oberst Dr Hoffmann, Berlin, 1940), 158.

54 . Heinrich Breloer (ed.), . Heinrich Breloer (ed.), Geheime Welten: Deutsche Tageb*cher aus den Jahren 1939 bis 1947 Geheime Welten: Deutsche Tageb*cher aus den Jahren 1939 bis 1947 (Cologne, 1999 [1984]), 27. (Cologne, 1999 [1984]), 27.

55 . Ibid., 30. . Ibid., 30.

56 . Klukowski, . Klukowski, Diary Diary, 75, 77, 80-82; Evans, The Nazi New Order The Nazi New Order, 66-82; Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 102-10; Adam Tooze, The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy The Wages of Destruction: The Making and Breaking of the Nazi Economy (London, 2006), 361 - 2. (London, 2006), 361 - 2.

57 . Klukowski, . Klukowski, Diary Diary, 86-7 (19 May 1940); Wolfgang Jacobmeyer, Heimat und Exil: Die Anf*nge der polnischen Untergrundbewegung im Zweiten Weltkrieg (September 1939 bis Mitte 1941) Heimat und Exil: Die Anf*nge der polnischen Untergrundbewegung im Zweiten Weltkrieg (September 1939 bis Mitte 1941) (Hamburg, 1973). (Hamburg, 1973).

58 . Housden, . Housden, Hans Frank Hans Frank, 120 - 21; Gross, Polish Society Polish Society, 87 59 . Ulrich Herbert, . Ulrich Herbert, Hitler's Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labor in Germany under the Third Reich Hitler's Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labor in Germany under the Third Reich (Cambridge, 1997 [1985]), 79 - 94; Broszat, (Cambridge, 1997 [1985]), 79 - 94; Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik , 102-17; Gross, , 102-17; Gross, Polish Society Polish Society, 78-81; Madajczyk, Die Okkupationspolitik Die Okkupationspolitik, 216 - 32.

60 . Klukowski, . Klukowski, Diary Diary, 31.

61 . B*hler, . B*hler, Auftakt Auftakt, 181 - 5.

62 . Breloer (ed.), . Breloer (ed.), Geheime Welten Geheime Welten, 27.

63 . Housden, . Housden, Hans Frank Hans Frank, 84 - 6; Madajczyk, Die Okkupationspolitik Die Okkupationspolitik, 334 - 8.

64 . Robert L. Koehl, . Robert L. Koehl, RKFDV: German Resettlement and Population Policy 1939 - 1945: A History of the Reich Commission for the Strengthening of Germandom RKFDV: German Resettlement and Population Policy 1939 - 1945: A History of the Reich Commission for the Strengthening of Germandom (Cambridge, Mass., 1957), 58; (Anon.), (Cambridge, Mass., 1957), 58; (Anon.), The German New Order in Poland The German New Order in Poland (London, 1942), 262; Aldor, (London, 1942), 262; Aldor, Germany's 'Death Space' Germany's 'Death Space', 147; Umbreit, Deutsche Milit*rverwaltungen Deutsche Milit*rverwaltungen, 222-72; Werner R*hr, 'Zur Wirtschaftspolitik der deutschen Okkupanten in Polen 1939-1945', in Dietrich Eichholtz (ed.), Krieg und Wirtschaft: Studien zur deutschen Wirtschaftsgeschichte 1939-1945 Krieg und Wirtschaft: Studien zur deutschen Wirtschaftsgeschichte 1939-1945 (Berlin, 1999); Ryszard Kaczmarek, 'Die deutsche wirtschaftliche Penetration in Polen (Oberschlesien)', in Richard Overy (Berlin, 1999); Ryszard Kaczmarek, 'Die deutsche wirtschaftliche Penetration in Polen (Oberschlesien)', in Richard Overy et al et al. (eds.), Die 'Neuordnung' Europas: NS-Wirtschaftspolitik in den besetzten Gebieten Die 'Neuordnung' Europas: NS-Wirtschaftspolitik in den besetzten Gebieten (Berlin, 1997), 257 - 72. (Berlin, 1997), 257 - 72.

65 . Evans, . Evans, The Nazi New Order The Nazi New Order, 83-96; Klukowski, Diary Diary, 85; Alder, Germany's 'Death Space' Germany's 'Death Space', 147.

66 . Martin P*ppel, . Martin P*ppel, Heaven and Hell: The War Diary of a German Paratrooper Heaven and Hell: The War Diary of a German Paratrooper (Staplehurst, 1988), 21. (Staplehurst, 1988), 21.

67 . Alcuin (pseud.), . Alcuin (pseud.), I Saw Poland Suffer I Saw Poland Suffer, 52 - 6.

68 . Ibid., 69. . Ibid., 69.

69 . Ibid., 72 - 3; general survey in Madajczyk, . Ibid., 72 - 3; general survey in Madajczyk, Die Okkupationspolitik Die Okkupationspolitik, 548 - 63. The question of whether German conduct towards the Poles can plausibly be called genocidal is dealt with sensibly in Gerhard Eitel, 'Genozid auch an Polen? Kein Thema f*r einen "Historikerstreit" ', Zeitgeschichte Zeitgeschichte, 18 (1990), 22 - 39.

70 . Halder, . Halder, Kriegstagebuch Kriegstagebuch, I. 68 (10 September 1939).

71 . Jansen and Weckbecker, . Jansen and Weckbecker, Der 'Volksdeutsche Selbstschutz' Der 'Volksdeutsche Selbstschutz', 175 - 80.

72 . Quoted in Krausnick, . Quoted in Krausnick, Hitlers Einsatzgruppen Hitlers Einsatzgruppen, 63.

73 . Ibid., 63 - 4. . Ibid., 63 - 4.

74 . Ibid., 55 - 6. . Ibid., 55 - 6.

75 . Ibid., 56-67; Rossino, . Ibid., 56-67; Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland Hitler Strikes Poland, 88-120, 174-85; Hans Meier-Welcker, Aufzeichnungen eines Generalstabsoffiziers 1939 - 1942 Aufzeichnungen eines Generalstabsoffiziers 1939 - 1942 (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1982), 39 (Cologne, 10 December 1939). (Freiburg im Breisgau, 1982), 39 (Cologne, 10 December 1939).

76 . In Hans-Adolf Jacobsen (ed.), . In Hans-Adolf Jacobsen (ed.), Misstrauische Nachbarn: Deutsche Ostpolitik 1919/1970 Misstrauische Nachbarn: Deutsche Ostpolitik 1919/1970 (D*sseldorf, 1970), 137 - 41. (D*sseldorf, 1970), 137 - 41.

77 . Ibid., 138. . Ibid., 138.

78 . Krausnick, . Krausnick, Hitlers Einsatzgruppen Hitlers Einsatzgruppen, 78-88; Kershaw, Hitler Hitler, II. 247-8; Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 40 - 41.

79 . For the collaboration of the army with the SS and ethnic German paramilitaries, see B*hler, . For the collaboration of the army with the SS and ethnic German paramilitaries, see B*hler, Auftakt Auftakt, 201 - 40.

80 . Leon Poliakov and Josef Wulf (eds.), . Leon Poliakov and Josef Wulf (eds.), Das Dritte Reich und seine Diener Das Dritte Reich und seine Diener (Frankfurt am Main, 1959), 385-6; Christopher Browning, (Frankfurt am Main, 1959), 385-6; Christopher Browning, The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939-March 1942 The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939-March 1942 (Lincoln, Nebr., 2004), 16 - 24, 72 - 80. (Lincoln, Nebr., 2004), 16 - 24, 72 - 80.

81 . Rossino, . Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland Hitler Strikes Poland, 174-85; Szymon Datner, Crimes Committed by the Wehrmacht during the September Campaign and the Period of Military Government Crimes Committed by the Wehrmacht during the September Campaign and the Period of Military Government (Posen, 1962); Janusz Gumkowski and Kazimierz Leszczynski, (Posen, 1962); Janusz Gumkowski and Kazimierz Leszczynski, Poland under Nazi Occupation Poland under Nazi Occupation (Warsaw, 1961), 53 - 5. (Warsaw, 1961), 53 - 5.

82 . Rossino, . Rossino, Hitler Strikes Poland Hitler Strikes Poland, 263 n. 129; B*hler, Auftakt Auftakt, 169 - 80. See also Mazower, Hitler's Empire Hitler's Empire, 78 - 96.

83 . Koehl, . Koehl, RKFDV RKFDV, 14-52; for Darre's schemes, see Evans, The Third Reich in Power The Third Reich in Power, 421-5. These policies are placed in the context of postwar Polish policy by Michael G. Esch, 'Gesunde Verh*ltnisse': Die deutsche und polnische Bev*lkerungspolitik in Ostmitteleuropa 1939-1950 'Gesunde Verh*ltnisse': Die deutsche und polnische Bev*lkerungspolitik in Ostmitteleuropa 1939-1950 (Marburg, 1998); the fundamental work here remains Koehl, (Marburg, 1998); the fundamental work here remains Koehl, RKFDV RKFDV, which first made clear the nature and dimensions of Nazi plans for the ethnic reordering of East-Central Europe. More recently, see Czeslaw Madajczyk et al et al. (eds.), Vom Generalplan Ost zum Generalsiedlungsplan: Dokumente Vom Generalplan Ost zum Generalsiedlungsplan: Dokumente (Munich, 1994); Go *tz Aly, (Munich, 1994); Go *tz Aly, 'Final Solution': Nazi Population Policy and the Murder of the European Jews 'Final Solution': Nazi Population Policy and the Murder of the European Jews I (London, 1999 [1995]); and Isabel Heinemann, I (London, 1999 [1995]); and Isabel Heinemann, 'Rasse, Siedlung, deutsches Blut': Das Rasse- und Siedlungshauptamt der SS und die rassenpolitische Neuordnung Europas 'Rasse, Siedlung, deutsches Blut': Das Rasse- und Siedlungshauptamt der SS und die rassenpolitische Neuordnung Europas (G*ttingen, 2003). (G*ttingen, 2003).

84 . Hitler speech in Max Domarus (ed.), . Hitler speech in Max Domarus (ed.), Hitler: Speeches and Proclamations 1932-1945: The Chronicle of a Dictatorship Hitler: Speeches and Proclamations 1932-1945: The Chronicle of a Dictatorship (4 vols., London, 1990- [1962 - 63]), III: (4 vols., London, 1990- [1962 - 63]), III: The Years 1939 to 1940 The Years 1939 to 1940, 1,836.

85 . Koehl, . Koehl, RKFDV RKFDV, 49 - 58, 247 - 9.

86 . Ibid., 49 - 65; Broszat, . Ibid., 49 - 65; Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 62 - 5; G*tz Aly and Susanne Heim, Architects of Annihilation: Auschwitz and the Logic of Destruction Architects of Annihilation: Auschwitz and the Logic of Destruction (Princeton, N.J., 2002), 73 - 114 (economically reductionist); see also Michael G. Esch, ' "Ohne R*cksicht auf historisch Gewordenes": Raumplanung und Raumordnung im besetzten Polen 1939-1944', in G*tz Aly (Princeton, N.J., 2002), 73 - 114 (economically reductionist); see also Michael G. Esch, ' "Ohne R*cksicht auf historisch Gewordenes": Raumplanung und Raumordnung im besetzten Polen 1939-1944', in G*tz Aly et al et al. (eds.), Modelle f*r ein deutsches Europa: *konomie und Herrschaft im Grosswirtschaftsraum Modelle f*r ein deutsches Europa: *konomie und Herrschaft im Grosswirtschaftsraum (Berlin, 1992), 77 - 123; Philip T. Rutherford, (Berlin, 1992), 77 - 123; Philip T. Rutherford, Prelude to the Final Solution: The Nazi Program for Deporting Ethnic Poles, 1939-1941 Prelude to the Final Solution: The Nazi Program for Deporting Ethnic Poles, 1939-1941 (Lawrence, Kans., 2007). (Lawrence, Kans., 2007).

87 . Broszat, . Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 43.

88 . Klukowski, . Klukowski, Diary Diary, 60 (11 December 1939); Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 42 - 3.

89 . Klukowski, . Klukowski, Diary Diary, 88; also 120 - 21 (14 October 1940).

90 . Jacobmeyer, 'Der U . Jacobmeyer, 'Der U*berfall', 23-9; Klukowski, Diary Diary, 104 (26 July 1940); Koehl, RKFDV RKFDV, 126-60; overview and chronology in Aly, 'Final Solution' 'Final Solution', 14-52, and in Madajczyk, Die Okkupationspolitik Die Okkupationspolitik, 233 - 58.

91 . Wilm Hosenfeld, . Wilm Hosenfeld, 'Ich versuche jeden zu retten': Das Leben eines deutschen Offiziers in Briefen und Tageb*chern 'Ich versuche jeden zu retten': Das Leben eines deutschen Offiziers in Briefen und Tageb*chern (ed. Thomas Vogel, Munich, 2004), 3, 302 (notes, 14 December 1939). (ed. Thomas Vogel, Munich, 2004), 3, 302 (notes, 14 December 1939).

92 . Ibid., 303 (note of 15 December 1939). . Ibid., 303 (note of 15 December 1939).

93 . Koehl, . Koehl, RKFDV RKFDV, 49-70; Broszat, Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik Nationalsozialistische Polenpolitik, 118-37. For documentation of German racial policy, see Georg Hansen (ed.), Schulpolitik als Volkstumspolitik: Quellen zur Schulpolitik der Besatzer in Polen 1939 - 1945 Schulpolitik als Volkstumspolitik: Quellen zur Schulpolitik der Besatzer in Polen 1939 - 1945 (M*nster, 1994), 23 - 80. (M*nster, 1994), 23 - 80.

94 . Wolfgang Michalka (ed.), . Wolfgang Michalka (ed.), Das Dritte Reich Das Dritte Reich (2 vols., Munich, 1985), II: (2 vols., Munich, 1985), II: Weltmachtanspruch und nationaler Zusammenbruch 1939 - 1945 Weltmachtanspruch und nationaler Zusammenbruch 1939 - 1945, 163 - 6.

95 . Clarissa Henry and Marc Hillel, . Clarissa Henry and Marc Hillel, Children of the SS Children of the SS (London, 1976 [1975]), 182-90; Koehl, (London, 1976 [1975]), 182-90; Koehl, RKFDV RKFDV, 143 - 5, 219 - 21; Cyprian and Sawicki, Nazi Rule Nazi Rule, 83 - 91. For the 'Well of Life' scheme, see Evans, The Third Reich in Power The Third Reich in Power, 521.