The circuit of a submarine line is essentially the same as that of a land line, except that the earth connection is usually the iron sheathing of the cable in lieu of an earth-plate. On a cable, however, at least a long cable, the instruments for sending and receiving the messages are different from those employed on a land line. A cable is virtually a Leyden jar or condenser, and the signal currents in the wire induce opposite currents in the water or earth. As these charges hold each other the signals are r.e.t.a.r.ded in their progress, and altered from sharp sudden jets to lagging undulations or waves, which tend to run together or coalesce. The result is that the separate signal currents which enter a long cable issue from it at the other end in one continuous current, with pulsations at every signal, that is to say, in a lapsing stream, like a jet of water flowing from a constricted spout. The receiving instrument must be sufficiently delicate to manifest every pulsation of the current. Its indicator, in fact, must respond to every rise and fall of the current, as a float rides on the ripples of a stream.

Such an instrument is the beautiful "mirror" galvanometer of Lord Kelvin, Ex-President of the Royal Society, which we ill.u.s.trate in figure 52, where C is a coil of wire with a small magnetic needle suspended in its heart, and D is a steel magnet supported over it.

The needle (M figure 53) is made of watch spring cemented to the back of a tiny mirror the size of a half-dime which is hung by a single fibre of floss silk inside an air cell or chamber with a gla.s.s lens G in front, and the coil C surrounds it. A ray of light from a lamp L (figure 52) falls on the mirror, and is reflected back to a scale S, on which it makes a bright spot. Now, when the coil C is connected between the end of the cable and the earth, the signal current pa.s.sing through it causes the tiny magnet to swing from side to side, and the mirror moving with it throws the beam up and down the scale. The operator sitting by watches the spot of light as it flits and flickers like a fire-fly in the darkness, and spells out the mysterious message.

A condenser joined in the circuit between the cable and the receiver, or between the receiver and the earth, has the effect of sharpening the waves of the current, and consequently of the signals. The double-current key, which reverses the poles of the battery and allows the signal currents to be of one length, that is to say, all "dots," is employed to send the message.

Another receiving instrument employed on most of the longer cables is the siphon recorder of Lord Kelvin, shown in figure 54, which marks or writes the message on a slip of travelling paper.

Essentially it is the inverse of the mirror instrument, and consists of a light coil of wire S suspended in the field between the poles of a strong magnet M. The coil is attached to a fine siphon (T5) filled with ink, and sometimes kept in vibration by an induction coil so as to shake the ink in fine drops upon a slip of moving paper. The coil is connected between the cable and the earth, and, as the signal current pa.s.ses through, it swings to one side or the other, pulling the siphon with it. The ink, therefore, marks a wavy line on the paper, which is in fact a delineation of the rise and fall of the signal current and a record of the message. The dots in this case are represented by the waves above, and the "dashes" by the waves below the middle line, as may be seen in the following alphabet, which is a copy of one actually written by the recorder on a long submarine cable.

Owing to induction, the speed of signalling on long cables is much slower than on land lines of the same length, and only reaches from 25 to 45 words a minute on the Atlantic cables, or 30 to 50 words with an automatic sending-key; but this rate is practically doubled by employing the Muirhead duplex system of sending two messages, one from each end, at the same time.

The relation of the telegraph to the telephone is a.n.a.logous to that of the lower animals and man. In a telegraph circuit, with its clicking key at one end and its chattering sounder at the other, we have, in fact, an apish forerunner of the exquisite telephone, with its mysterious microphone and oracular plate.

Nevertheless, the telephone descended from the telegraph in a very indirect manner, if at all, and certainly not through the sounder.

The first practical suggestion of an electric telephone was made by M. Charles Bourseul, a French telegraphist, in 1854, but to all appearance nothing came of it. In 1860, however, Philipp Reis, a German schoolmaster, constructed a rudimentary telephone, by which music and a few spoken words were sent. Finally, in 1876, Mr.

Alexander Graham Bell, a Scotchman, residing in Canada, and subsequently in the United States, exhibited a capable speaking telephone of his invention at the Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia.

Figure 56 represents an outside view and section of the Bell telephone as it is now made, where M is a bar magnet having a small bobbin or coil of fine insulated wire C girdling one pole.

In front of this coil there is a circular plate of soft iron capable of vibrating like a diaphragm or the drum of the ear. A cover shaped like a mouthpiece O fixes the diaphragm all round, and the wires W W serve to connect the coil in the circuit.

The soft iron diaphragm is, of course, magnetised by the induction of the pole, and would be attracted bodily to the pole were it not fixed by the rim, so that only its middle is free to move. Now, when a person speaks into the mouthpiece the sonorous waves impinge on the diaphragm and make it vibrate in sympathy with them. Being magnetic, the movement of the diaphragm to and from the bobbin excites corresponding waves of electricity in the coil, after the famous experiment of Faraday (page 64). If this undulatory current is pa.s.sed through the coil of a similar telephone at the far end of the line, it will, by a reverse action, set the diaphragm in vibration and reproduce the original sonorous waves. The result is, that when another person listens at the mouthpiece of the receiving telephone, he will hear a faithful imitation of the original speech.

The Bell telephone is virtually a small magneto-electric generator of electricity, and when two are joined in circuit we have a system for the transmission of energy. As the voice is the motive power, its talk, though distinct, is comparatively feeble, and further improvements were made before the telephone became as serviceable as it is now.

Edison, in 1877, was the first to invent a working telephone, which, instead of generating the current, merely controlled the strength of it, as the sluice of a mill-dam regulates the flow of water in the lead. Du Moncel had observed that powder of carbon altered in electrical resistance under pressure, and Edison found that lamp-black was so sensitive as to change in resistance under the impact of the sonorous waves. His transmitter consisted of a b.u.t.ton or wafer of lamp-black behind a diaphragm, and connected in the circuit. On speaking to the diaphragm the sonorous waves pressed it against the b.u.t.ton, and so varied the strength of the current in a sympathetic manner. The receiver of Edison was equally ingenious, and consisted of a cylinder of prepared chalk kept in rotation and a bra.s.s stylus rubbing on it. When the undulatory current pa.s.sed from the stylus to the chalk, the stylus slipped on the surface, and, being connected to a diaphragm, made it vibrate and repeat the original sounds. This "electro- motograph" receiver was, however, given up, and a combination of the Edison transmitter and the Bell receiver came into use.

At the end of 1877 Professor D. E. Hughes, a distinguished Welshman, inventor of the printing telegraph, discovered that any loose contact between two conductors had the property of transmitting sounds by varying the strength of an electric current pa.s.sing through it. Two pieces of metal--for instance, two nails or ends of wire--when brought into a loose or crazy contact under a slight pressure, and traversed by a current, will transmit speech. Two pieces of hard carbon are still better than metals, and if properly adjusted will make the tread of a fly quite audible in a telephone connected with them. Such is the famous "microphone," by which a faint sound can be magnified to the ear.

Figure 57 represents what is known as the "pencil" microphone, in which M is a pointed rod of hard carbon, delicately poised between two brackets of carbon, which are connected in circuit with a battery B and a Bell telephone T. The joints of rod and bracket are so sensitive that the current flowing across them is affected in strength by the slightest vibration, even the walking of an insect. If, therefore, we speak near this microphone, the sonorous waves, causing the pencil to vibrate, will so vary the current in accordance with them as to reproduce the sounds of the voice in the telephone.

The true nature of the microphone is not yet known, but it is evident that the air or ether between the surfaces in contact plays an important part in varying the resistance, and, therefore, the current. In fact, a small "voltaic arc," not luminous, but dark, seems to be formed between the points, and the vibrations probably alter its length, and, consequently, its resistance. The fact that a microphone is reversible and can act as a receiver, though a poor one, tends to confirm this theory. Moreover, it is not unlikely that the slipping of the stylus in the electromotograph is due to a similar cause. Be this as it may, there can be no doubt that carbon powder and the lamp-black of the Edison b.u.t.ton are essentially a cl.u.s.ter of microphones.

Many varieties of the Hughes microphone under different names are now employed as transmitters in connection with the Bell telephone. Figure 58 represents a simple micro-telephone circuit, where M is the Hughes microphone transmitter, T the Bell telephone receiver, JB the battery, and E E the earth-plates; but sometimes a return wire is used in place of the "earth." The line wire is usually of copper and its alloys, which are more suitable than iron, especially for long distances. Just as the signal currents in a submarine cable induce corresponding currents in the sea water which r.e.t.a.r.d them, so the currents in a land wire induce corresponding currents in the earth, but in aerial lines the earth is generally so far away that the consequent r.e.t.a.r.dation is negligible except in fast working on long lines. The Bell telephone, however, is extremely sensitive, and this induction affects it so much that a conversation through one wire can be overheard on a neighbouring wire. Moreover, there is such a thing as "self-induction" in a wire--that is to say, a current in a wire tends to induce an opposite current in the same wire, which is practically equivalent to an increase of resistance in the wire.

It is particularly observed at the starting and stopping of a current, and gives rise to what is called the "extra-spark" seen in breaking the circuit of an induction coil. It is also active in the vibratory currents of the telephone, and, like ordinary induction, tends to r.e.t.a.r.d their pa.s.sage. Copper being less susceptible of self-induction than iron, is preferred for trunk lines. The disturbing effect of ordinary induction is avoided by using a return wire or loop circuit, and crossing the going and coming wires so as to make them exchange places at intervals.

Moreover, it is found that an induction coil in the telephone circuit, like a condenser in the cable circuit, improves the working, and hence it is usual to join the battery and transmitter with the primary wire, and the secondary wire with the line and the receiver.

The longest telephone line as yet made is that from New York to Chicago, a distance of 950 miles. It is made of thick copper wire, erected on cedar poles 35 feet above the ground.

Induction is so strong on submarine cables of 50 or 100 miles in length that the delicate waves of the telephone current are smoothed away, and the speech is either m.u.f.fled or entirely stifled. Nevertheless, a telephone cable 20 miles long was laid between Dover and Calais in 1891, and another between Stranraer and Donaghadee more recently, thus placing Great Britain on speaking terms with France and other parts of the Continent.

Figure 59 shows a form of telephone apparatus employed in the United Kingdom. In it the transmitter and receiver, together with a call-bell, which are required at each end of the line, are neatly combined. The transmitter is a Blake microphone, in which the loose joint is a contact of platinum on hard carbon. It is fitted up inside the box, together with an induction coil, and M is the mouthpiece for speaking to it. The receiver is a pair of Bell telephones T T, which are detached from their hooks and held to the ear. A call-bell B serves to "ring up" the correspondent at the other end of the line.

Excepting private lines, the telephone is worked on the "exchange system"--that is to say, the wires running to different persons converge in a central exchange, where, by means of an apparatus called a "switch board," they are connected together for the purpose of conversation

A telephone exchange would make an excellent subject for the artist. He delights to paint us a row of Venetian bead stringers or a band of Sevilhan cigarette makers, but why does he shirk a bevy of industrious girls working a telephone exchange? Let us peep into one of these retired haunts, where the modern Fates are cutting and joining the lines of electric speech between man and man in a great city.

The scene is a long, handsome room or gallery, with a singular piece of furniture in the shape of an L occupying the middle. This is the switchboard, in which the wires from the offices and homes of the subscribers are concentrated like the nerves in a ganglion.

It is known as the "multiple switchboard," an American invention, and is divided into sections, over which the operators preside.

The lines of all the subscribers are brought to each section, so that the operator can cross connect any two lines in the whole system without leaving her chair. Each section of the board is, in fact, an epitome of the whole, but it is physically impossible for a single operator to make all the connections of a large exchange, and the work is distributed amongst them. A multiplicity of wires is therefore needed to connect, say, two thousand subscribers.

These are all concealed, however, at the back of the board, and in charge of the electricians. The young lady operators have nothing to do with these, and so much the better for them, as it would puzzle their minds a good deal worse than a ravelled skein of thread. Their duty is to sit in front of the board in comfortable seats at a long table and make the needful connections. The call signal of a subscriber is given by the drop of a disc bearing his number. The operator then asks the subscriber by telephone what he wants, and on hearing the number of the other subscriber he wishes to speak with, she takes up a pair of bra.s.s plugs coupled by a flexible conductor and joins the lines of the subscribers on the switchboard by simply thrusting the plugs into holes corresponding to the wires. The subscribers are then free to talk with each other undisturbed, and the end of the conversation is signalled to the operator. Every instant the call discs are dropping, the connecting plugs are thrust into the holes, and the girls are asking "Hullo! hullo!" "Are you there?" "Who are you?" "Have you finished?" Yet all this constant activity goes on quietly, deftly --we might say elegantly--and in comparative silence, for the low tones of the girlish voices are soft and pleasing, and the harsher sounds of the subscriber are unheard in the room by all save the operator who attends to him.

CHAPTER VII.

ELECTRIC LIGHT AND HEAT.

The electric spark was, of course, familiar to the early experimenters with electricity, but the electric light, as we know it, was first discovered by Sir Humphrey Davy, the Cornish philosopher, in the year 1811 or thereabout. With the magic of his genius Davy transformed the spark into a brilliant glow by pa.s.sing it between two points of carbon instead of metal. If, as in figure 60, we twist the wires (+ and--) which come from a voltaic battery, say of 20 cells, about two carbon pencils, and bring their tips together in order to start the current, then draw them a little apart, we shall produce an artificial or mimic star. A sheet of dazzling light, which is called the electric arc, is seen to bridge the gap. It is not a true flame, for there is little combustion, but rather a nebulous blaze of silvery l.u.s.tre in a bluish veil of heated air. The points of carbon are white-hot, and the positive is eaten away into a hollow or crater by the current, which violently tears its particles from their seat and whirls them into the fierce vortex of the arc. The negative remains pointed, but it is also worn away about half as fast as the positive. This wasting of the carbons tends to widen the arc too much and break the current, hence in arc lamps meant to yield the light for hours the sticks are made of a good length, and a self- acting mechanism feeds them forward to the arc as they are slowly consumed, thus maintaining the splendour of the illumination.

Many ingenious lamps have been devised by Serrin, Dubosq, Siemens, Brockie, and others, some regulating the arc by clockwork and electro-magnetism, or by thermal and other effects of the current.

They are chiefly used for lighting halls and railway stations, streets and open s.p.a.ces, search-lights and lighthouses. They are sometimes naked, but as a rule their brightness is tempered by globes of ground or opal gla.s.s. In search-lights a parabolic mirror projects all the rays in any one direction, and in lighthouses the arc is placed in the focus of the condensing lenses, and the beam is visible for at least twenty or thirty miles on clear nights. Very powerful arc lights, equivalent to hundreds of thousands of candles, can be seen for 100 or 150 miles.

Figure 61 ill.u.s.trates the Pilsen lamp, in which the positive Carbon G runs on rollers rr through the hollow interior of two solenoids or coils of wire MM' and carries at its middle a spindle-shaped piece of soft iron C. The current flows through the solenoid M on its way to the arc, but a branch or shunted portion of it flows through the solenoid M', and as both of these solenoids act as electromagnets on the soft iron C, each tending to suck it into its interior, the iron rests between them when their powers are balanced. When, however, the arc grows too wide, and the current therefore becomes too weak, the shunt solenoid M'

gains a purchase over the main solenoid M, and, pulling the iron core towards it, feeds the positive carbon to the arc. In this way the balance of the solenoids is readjusted, the current regains its normal strength, the arc its proper width, and the light its brilliancy.

Figure 62 is a diagrammatic representation of the Brush arc lamp.

X and Y are the line terminals connecting the lamp in circuit. On the one hand, the current splits and pa.s.ses around the hollow spools H H', thence to the rod N through the carbon K, the arc, the carbon K', and thence through the lamp frame to Y. On the other hand, it runs in a resistance fine-wire coil around the magnet T, thence to Y. The operation of the lamp is as follows: K and K' being in contact, a strong current starts through the lamp energising H and H', which suck in their core pieces N and S, lifting C, and by it the "washer-clutch" W and the rod N and carbon K, establishing the arc. K is lifted until the increasing resistance of the lengthening arc weakens the current in H H' and a balance is established. As the carbons burn away, C gradually lowers until a stop under W holds it horizontal and allows N to drop through W, and the lamp starts anew. If for any reason the resistance of the lamp becomes too great, or the circuit is broken, the increased current through T draws up its armature, closing the contacts M, thus short-circuiting the lamp through a thick, heavy wire coil on T, which then keeps M closed, and prevents the dead lamp from interfering with the others on its line. Numerous modifications of this lamp are in very general use.

Davy also found that a continuous wire or stick of carbon could be made white-hot by sending a sufficient current through it, and this fact is the basis of the incandescent lamp now so common in our homes.

Wires of platinum, iridium, and other inoxidisable metals raised to incandescence by the current are useful in firing mines, but they are not quite suitable for yielding a light, because at a very high temperature they begin to melt. Every solid body becomes red-hot--that is to say, emits rays of red light, at a temperature of about 1000 degrees Fahrenheit, yellow rays at 1300 degrees, blue rays at 1500 degrees, and white light at 2000 degrees. It is found, however, that as the temperature of a wire is pushed beyond this figure the light emitted becomes far more brilliant than the increase of temperature would seem to warrant. It therefore pays to elevate the temperature of the filament as high as possible.

Unfortunately the most refractory metals, such as platinum and alloys of platinum with iridium, fuse at a temperature of about 3450 degrees Fahrenheit. Electricians have therefore forsaken metals, and fallen back on carbon for producing a light. In 1845 Mr. Staite devised an incandescent lamp consisting of a fine rod or stick of carbon rendered white-hot by the current, and to preserve the carbon from burning in the atmosphere, he enclosed it in a gla.s.s bulb, from which the air was exhausted by an air pump.

Edison and Swan, in 1878, and subsequently, went a step further, and subst.i.tuted a filament or fine thread of carbon for the rod.

The new lamp united the advantages of wire in point of form with those of carbon as a material. The Edison filament was made by cutting thin slips of bamboo and charring them, the Swan by carbonising linen fibre with sulphuric acid. It was subsequently found that a hard skin could be given to the filament by "flashing" it--that is to say, heating it to incandescence by the current in an atmosphere of hydrocarbon gas. The filament thus treated becomes dense and resilient.

Figure 63 represents an ordinary glow lamp of the Edison-Swan type, where E is the filament, moulded into a loop, and cemented to two platinum wires or electrodes P penetrating the gla.s.s bulb L, which is exhausted of air.

Platinum is chosen because it expands and contracts with temperature about the same as gla.s.s, and hence there is little chance of the gla.s.s cracking through unequal stress. The vacuum in the bulb is made by a mercurial air pump of the Sprengel sort, and the pressure of air in it is only about one-millionth of an atmosphere. The bulb is fastened with a holder like that shown in figure 64, where two little hooks H connected to screw terminals T T are provided to make contact with the platinum terminals of the lamp (P, figure 63), and the spiral spring, by pressing on the bulb, ensures a good contact.

Fig. 65 is a cut of the ordinary Edison lamp and socket. One end of the filament is connected to the metal screw ferule at the base. The other end is attached to the metal b.u.t.ton in the centre of the extreme bottom of the base. s.c.r.e.w.i.n.g the lamp into the socket automatically connects the filament on one end to the screw, on the other to an insulated plate at the bottom of the socket.

The resistance of such a filament hot is about 200 ohms, and to produce a good light from it the battery or dynamo ought to give an electromotive force of at least 100 volts. Few voltaic cells or acc.u.mulators have an electromotive force of more than 2 volts, therefore we require a battery of 50 cells joined in series, each cell giving 2 volts, and the whole set 100 volts. The strength of current in the circuit must also be taken into account. To yield a good light such a lamp requires or "takes" about 1/2 an ampere.

Hence the cells must be chosen with regard to their size and internal resistance as well as to their kind, so that when the battery, in series, is connected to the lamp, the resistance of the whole circuit, including the filament or lamp, the battery itself, and the connecting wires shall give by Ohm's law a current of 12 an ampere. It will be understood that the current has the same strength in every part of the circuit, no matter how it is made up. Thus, if 1/2 of an ampere is flowing in the lamp, it is also flowing in the battery and wires. An Edison-Swan lamp of this model gives a light of about 15 candles, and is well adapted for illuminating the interior of houses. The temperature of the carbon filament is about 3450 degrees Fahr--that is to say, the temperature at which platinum melts. Similar lamps of various sizes and shapes are also made, some equivalent to as many as 100 candles, and fitted for large halls or streets, others emitting a tiny beam like the spark of a glow-worm, and designed for medical examinations, or lighting flowers, jewels, and dresses in theatres or ball-rooms.

The electric incandescent lamp is pure and healthy, since it neither burns nor pollutes the air. It is also cool and safe, for it produces little heat, and cannot ignite any inflammable stuffs near it. Hence its peculiar merit as a light for colliers working in fiery mines. Independent of air, it acts equally well under water, and is therefore used by divers. Moreover, it can be fixed wherever a wire can be run, does not tarnish gilding, and lends itself to the most artistic decoration.

Electric lamps are usually connected in circuit on the series, parallel, and three wire system.

The series system is shown in figure 66, where the lamps L L follow each other in a row like beads on a string. It is commonly reserved for the arc lamp, which has a resistance so low that a moderate electromotive force can overcome the added resistance of the lamps, but, of course, if the circuit breaks at any point all the lamps go out.

The parallel system is ill.u.s.trated in figure 67, where the lamps are connected between two main conductors cross-wise, like the steps of a ladder. The current is thus divided into cross channels, like water used for irrigating fields, and it is obvious that, although the circuit is broken at one point, say by the rupture of a filament, all the lamps do not go out.

Fig. 68 exhibits the Edison three-wire system, in which two batteries or dynamos are connected together in series, and a third or central main conductor is run from their middle poles. The plan saves a return wire, for if two generators had been used separately, four mains would have been necessary.

The parallel and three-wire systems in various groups, with or without acc.u.mulators as local reservoirs, are chiefly employed for incandescent lamps.