BARBADOS COVERED WITH ASHES

Northeast of the original crater of the Soufriere a new one was formed which was a half mile in diameter and five hundred feet deep. The old crater was in time transformed into a beautiful blue lake, as above stated, walled in by ragged cliffs to a height of eight hundred feet.

It was looked upon as a remarkable circ.u.mstance that although the air was perfectly calm during the eruption, Barbados, which is ninety-five miles to the windward, was covered inches deep with ashes. The inhabitants there and on other neighboring islands were terrified by the darkness, which continued for four hours and a half. Troops were called under arms, the supposition from the continued noise being that hostile fleets were in an engagement.

The movement of the ashes to windward, as just stated, was viewed as a remarkable phenomenon, and is cited by Elise Reclus, in "The Ocean," to show the force of different aerial currents; "On the first day of May, 1812, when the northeast trade-wind was in all its force, enormous quant.i.ties of ashes obscured the atmosphere above the Island of Barbados, and covered the ground with a thick layer. One would have supposed that they came from the volcanoes of the Azores, which were to the northeast; nevertheless they were cast up by the crater in St.

Vincent, one hundred miles to the west. It is therefore certain that the debris had been hurled, by the force of the eruption, above the moving sheet of the trade-winds into an aerial river proceeding in a contrary direction." For this it must have been hurled miles high into the air, till caught by the current of the anti-trade winds.

KINGSLEY'S VISIT TO SAINT VINCENT

From Charles Kingsley's "At Last" we extract, from the account of the visit of the author to St. Vincent, some interesting matter concerning the 1812 eruption and its effect on the mountain; also its influence upon distant Barbados, as just stated.

"The strangest fact about this eruption was, that the mountain did not make use of its old crater. The original vent must have become so jammed and consolidated, in the few years between 1785 and 1812, that it could not be reopened, even by a steam force the vastness of which may be guessed at from the vastness of the area which it had shaken for two years. So, when the eruption was over, it was found that the old crater-lake, incredible as it may seem, remained undisturbed, so far as has been ascertained; but close to it, and separated only by a knife-edge of rock some 700 feet in height, and so narrow that, as I was a.s.sured by one who had seen it, it is dangerous to crawl along it, a second crater, nearly as large as the first, had been blasted out, the bottom of which, in like manner, was afterward filled with water.

"I regretted much that I could not visit it. Three points I longed to ascertain carefully--the relative heights of the water in the two craters; the height and nature of the spot where the lava stream issued; and, lastly, if possible, the actual causes of the locally famous Rabacca, or 'Dry River,' one of the largest streams in the island, which was swallowed up during the eruption, at a short distance from its source, leaving its bed an arid gully to this day. But it could not be, and I owe what little I know of the summit of the soufriere princ.i.p.ally to a most intelligent and gentleman-like young Wesleyan minister, whose name has escaped me. He described vividly, as we stood together on the deck, looking up at the volcano, the awful beauty of the twin lakes, and of the clouds which, for months together, whirl in and out of the cups in fantastic shapes before the eddies of the trade wind.

BLACK SUNDAY AT BARBADOS

"The day after the explosion, 'Black Sunday,' gave a proof of, though no measure of, the enormous force which had been exerted. Eighty miles to windward lies Barbados. All Sat.u.r.day a heavy cannonading had been heard to the eastward. The English and French fleets were surely engaged. The soldiers were called out; the batteries manned; but the cannonade died away, and all went to bed in wonder. On the 1st of May the clocks struck six, but the sun did not, as usual in the tropics, answer to the call.

The darkness was still intense, and grew more intense as the morning wore on. A slow and silent rain of impalpable dust was falling over the whole island. The negroes rushed shrieking into the streets. Surely the last day was come. The white folk caught (and little blame to them) the panic, and some began to pray who had not prayed for years. The pious and the educated (and there were plenty of both in Barbados) were not proof against the infection. Old letters describe the scene in the churches that morning as hideous--prayers, sobs, and cries, in Stygian darkness, from trembling crowds. And still the darkness continued and the dust fell.

INCIDENTS AT BARBADOS

"I have a letter written by one long since dead, who had at least powers of description of no common order, telling how, when he tried to go out of his house upon the east coast, he could not find the trees on his own lawn save by feeling for their stems. He stood amazed not only in utter darkness, but in utter silence; for the trade-wind had fallen dead, the everlasting roar of the surf was gone, and the only noise was the crashing of branches, snapped by the weight of the clammy dust. He went in again, and waited. About one o'clock the veil began to lift; a lurid sunlight stared in from the horizon, but all was black overhead.

Gradually the dust drifted away; the island saw the sun once more, and saw itself inches deep in black, and in this case fertilizing, dust. The trade-wind blew suddenly once more out of the clear east, and the surf roared again along the sh.o.r.e.

"Meanwhile a heavy earthquake-wave had struck part at least of the sh.o.r.es of Barbados. The gentleman on the east coast, going out, found traces of the sea, and boats and logs washed up some ten to twenty feet above high-tide mark; a convulsion which seemed to have gone unmarked during the general dismay.

"One man at least, an old friend of John Hunter, Sir Joseph Banks and others their compeers, was above the dismay, and the superst.i.tious panic which accompanied it. Finding it still dark when he rose to dress, he opened (so the story used to run) his window; found it stick, and felt upon the sill a coat of soft powder. 'The volcano in St. Vincent has broken out at last,' said the wise man, 'and this is the dust of it.' So he quieted his household and his negroes, lighted his candles, and went to his scientific books, in that delight, mingled with an awe not the less deep, because it is rational and self-possessed, with which he, like the other men of science, looked at the wonders of this wondrous world."

CHAPTER x.x.x.

Submarine Volcanoes and their Work of Island Building.

In November, 1867, a volcano suddenly began to show signs of activity beneath the deep sea of the Pacific Ocean. There are some islands nearly two thousands miles to the east of Australia called the Navigator's Group, in which there had been no history of an eruption, nor had such an event been handed down by tradition. Most of the islands in the Pacific Ocean are old volcanoes, or are made up of rocks cast forth from extinct burning mountains. They rise up like peaks through the great depths of the ocean, and the top, which just appears above the sea-level, is generally encircled by a growth of coral. Hence they are termed coral islands. These islands every now and then rise higher than the sea-level, owing to some deep upheaving force, and then the coral is lifted up above the water, and become a solid rock. But occasionally the reverse of this takes place, and the islands begin to sink into the sea, owing to a force which causes the base of the submarine mountain to become depressed. Sometimes they disappear. All this shows that some great disturbing forces are in action at the bottom of the sea, and just within the earth's crust, and that they are of a volcanic nature.

For some time before the eruption in question, earthquakes shook the surrounding islands of the Navigator's Group, and caused great alarm, and when the trembling of the earth was very great, the sea began to be agitated near one of the islands, and vast circles of disturbed water were formed. Soon the water began to be forced upwards, and dead fish were seen floating about. After a while, steam rushed forth, and jets of mud and volcanic sand. Moreover, when the steam began to rush up out of the water, the violence of the general agitation of the land and of the surface of the sea increased.

AN ERUPTION DESCRIBED

When the eruption was at its height vast columns of mud and ma.s.ses of stone rushed into the air to a height of 2,000 feet, and the fearful crash of ma.s.ses of rock hurled upwards and coming in collision with others which were falling attested the great volume of ejected matter which acc.u.mulated in the bed of the ocean, although no trace of a volcano could be seen above the surface of the sea. Similar submarine volcanic action has been observed in the Atlantic Ocean, and crews of ships have reported that they have seen in different places sulphurous smoke, flame, jets of water, and steam, rising up from the sea, or they have observed the waters greatly discolored and in a state of violent agitation, as if boiling in large circles.

New shoals have also been encountered, or a reef of rocks just emerging above the surface, where previously there was always supposed to have been deep water. On some few occasions, the gradual building up of an island by submarine volcanoes has been observed, as that of Sabrina in 1181, off St. Michael's, in the Azores. The throwing up of ashes in this case, and the formation of a conical hill 300 feet high, with a crater out of which spouted lava and steam, took place very rapidly. But the waves had the best of it, and finally washed Sabrina into the depths of the ocean. Previous eruptions in the same part of the sea were recorded as having happened in 1691 and 1720.

In 1831, a submarine volcanic eruption occurred in the Mediterranean Sea, between Sicily and that part of the African coast where Carthage formerly stood. A few years before, Captain Smyth had sounded the spot in a survey of the sea ordered by Government, and he found the sea-bottom to be under 500 feet of water. On June 28, about a fortnight before the eruption was visible, Sir Pulteney Malcom, in pa.s.sing over the spot in his ship, felt the shock of an earthquake as if he had struck on a sandbank, and the same shocks were felt on the west coast of Sicily, in a direction from south-west to north-east.

BUILDING UP OF AN ISLAND BY SUBMARINE VOLCANOES

About July 10, the captain of a Sicilian vessel reported that as he pa.s.sed near the place he saw a column of water like a waterspout, sixty feet high, and 800 yards in circ.u.mference, rising from the sea, and soon after a dense rush of steam in its place, which ascended to the height of 1,800 feet. The same captain, on his return eighteen days after, found a small island twelve feet high, with a crater in its centre, throwing forth volcanic matter and immense columns of vapor, the sea around being covered with floating cinders and dead fish. The eruption continued with great violence to the end of the same month. By the end of the month the island grew to ninety feet in height, and measured three-quarters of a mile round. By August 4th it became 200 feet high and three miles in circ.u.mference; after which it began to diminish in size by the action of the waves. Towards the end of October the island was levelled nearly to the surface of the sea.

Naval officers and foreign ministers alike took an absorbing interest in this new island. The strong national thirst for territory manifested itself and eager mariners waited only till the new land should be cool enough to set foot on to strive who should be first to plant there his country's flag. Names in abundance were given it by successive observers,--Nerita, Sciacca, Fernandina, Julia, Hotham, Corrao, and Graham. The last holds good in English speech, and as Graham's Island it is known in books to-day, though the sea took back what it had given, leaving but a shoal of cinders and sand.

The Bay of Santorin, in the island of that name, which lies immediately to the north of Crete, has long been noted for its submarine volcanoes.

According to one account, indeed, the whole island was at a remote period raised from the bottom of the sea; but this is questionable. It is, with more reason, supposed that the bay is the site of an ancient crater, which was situated on the summit of a volcanic cone that subsequently fell in. Certain it is that islands have from time to time been thrown up by volcanic forces from the bottom of the sea within this bay, and that some of them have remained, while others have sunk again.

HOW AN ISLAND GREW

Of the existing islands, some were thrown up shortly before the beginning of the Christian era; in particular, one called the Great Cammeni, which, however, received a considerable accession to its size by a fresh eruption in A. D. 726. The islet nearest Santorin was raised in 1573, and was named the Little Cammeni; and in 1707 there was added, between the other two, a third, which is now called the Black Island.

This made its appearance above water on the 23rd of May, 1707, and was first mistaken for a wreck; but some sailors, who landed on it, found it to be a ma.s.s of rock; consisting of a very white soft stone, to which were adhering quant.i.ties of fresh oysters. While they were collecting these, a violent shaking of the ground scared them away.

During several weeks the island gradually increased in volume; but in July, at a distance of about sixty paces from the new islet, there was thrown up a chain of black calcined rocks, followed by volumes of thick black smoke, having a sulphurous smell. A few days thereafter the water all around the spot became hot, and many dead fishes were thrown up.

Then, with loud subterraneous noises, flames arose, and fresh quant.i.ties of stones and other substances were ejected, until the chain of black rocks became united to the first islet that had appeared. This eruption continued for a long time, there being thrown out quant.i.ties of ashes and pumice, which covered the island of Santorin and the surface of the sea--some being drifted to the coasts of Asia Minor and the Dardanelles.

The activity of this miniature volcano was prolonged, with greater or less energy, for about ten years.

In 1866 similar phenomena took place in the Bay of Santorin, beginning with underground sounds and slight shocks of earthquake, which were followed by the appearance of flames on the surface of the sea. Soon after there arose, out of a dense smoke, a small islet, which gradually increased until in a week's time it was 60 feet high, 200 long and 90 wide. The people of Santorin named it "George," in honor of the King of Greece. In another week it joined and became continuous with the Little Cammeni. The detonations increased in loudness, and large quant.i.ties of incandescent stones were thrown up from the crater.

About the same time, at the distance of nearly 150 feet from the coast, to the westward of a point called Cape Phlego, there rose from the sea another island, to which was given the name of Aphroessa. It sank and reappeared several times before it established itself above water. The detonations and ejection of incandescent lava and stones continued at intervals during three weeks. From the crater of the islet George, which attained a height of 150 feet, some stones several cubic yards in bulk were projected to a great distance. One of them falling on board of a merchant vessel, killed the captain and set fire to the ship.

By the 10th of March the eruptions had partially subsided, but were then renewed, and a third island, which was named Reka, rose alongside of Aphroessa. They were at first separated by a channel sixty feet deep; but in three days this was filled up, and the two islets became united.

Reference may properly be made here to Monte Nuovo and Jorullo, not that they appertain to the present subject, but that they form examples of the action of similar forces, in the one instance exerted on a lake bottom, in the other on dry land, each yielding permanent volcanic elevations in every respect a.n.a.logous to those which rise as islands from the bottom of the sea.

IN THE ICELANDIC SEAS

Off the coast of Iceland islands have appeared during several of the volcanic eruptions which that remote dependency of Denmark has manifested, and at various periods in Iceland's history the sea has been covered with pumice and other debris, which tell their own tale of what has been going on, without being in sufficient quant.i.ty to reach the surface in the form of an island ma.s.s. The sea off Reykjanes--Smoky Cape, as the name means--has been a frequent scene of these submarine eruptions. In 1240, during what the Icelandic historians describe as the eighth outburst, a number of islets were formed, though most of them subsequently disappeared, only to have their places occupied by others born at a later date. In 1422 high rocks of considerable circ.u.mference appeared. In 1783, about a month before the eruption of Skaptar Jokull, a volcanic island named Nyoe, from which fire and smoke issued, was built up. But in time it vanished under the waves, all that remains of it to-day being a reef from five to thirty-five fathoms below the sea-level. In 1830, after several long-continued eruptions of the usual character, another isle arose; while at the same time the skerries known as the Geirfuglaska disappeared, and with them vanished the great auks, or gare-fowls--birds now extinct--which up to that time had bred on them. At all events, though the auks could not well have been drowned, no traces of them were seen after the date mentioned. In July, 1884, an island again appeared about ten miles off Reykjanes; but it is already beginning to diminish in size, and may soon disappear.

OFF THE COAST OF ALASKA