[12] "Francke had the rare ability to see clearly what needed doing, and then to do it regardless of obstacles or consequences. The magnitude of his work in Halle is simply marvelous, and yet what he actually accomplished is insignificant in comparison with what he inspired others to do. He showed how practical Christianity could be incorporated in the work of the common schools; his plan was immediately adopted by Frederick William I and made well-nigh universal in Prussia. He showed how the Realien could be profitably employed in a Latin school, and even made a const.i.tuent part of a university preparatory course; as a result of his methods, and especially of his suggestion that schools should be founded for the exclusive purpose of fitting the youth of the citizen cla.s.s for practical life, there has since grown up in Germany a cla.s.s of Real- schools." (Russell, J. E., _German Higher Schools_, p. 64.)

[13] Paulsen, Fr., _The German Universities_, p. 36.

[14] As late as 1805, according to Paulsen, of the whole number of students in the universities of Prussia, there were but 144 in the combined medical faculties, as against 555 in theology, and 1036 in law.

[15] Francke relates that, as a student at Erfurt (c. 1675), he was able to study physics and botany, along with his theological studies. Oxford records show the publication of a list of plants in the "Physick Garden"

there as early as 1648. The garden was endowed about that time by the Earl of Danby, and in 1764 lectures on botany were begun there. Lord Bacon, in his _Advancement of Learning_ (1605), had written: "We see likewise that some places inst.i.tuted for physic (medicinae) have annexed the commodity of gardens for simples of all sorts, and do likewise command the use of dead bodies for anatomies."

[16] Thomasius was made professor of theology, and Francke professor of Greek and Oriental languages. Both had been expelled from the University of Leipzig. Christian Wolff, who had been banished by Frederick William I, was recalled and made professor of philosophy. It was he who "made philosophy talk German."

CHAPTER XVIII

[1] Quick, R. H., _Essays on Educational Reformers_, 26. ed., p. 97.

[2] Locke was the first to lay the basis for modern scientific psychology to supersede the philosophic psychology of Plato and Aristotle. In his _Essay on the Conduct of the Human Understanding_ (1690) upon which he spent many years of labor, he first applied the methods of scientific observation to the mind, a.n.a.lyzed experiences, and employed introspection and comparative mental study. He thus built up a psychology based on the a.n.a.lysis of experiences, and came to the conclusion that our knowledge is derived by reflection on experience coming through sensation. He is consequently called the founder of empirical psychology, and the forerunner of modern experimental psychology and child study. His philosophy, and his theory of education as well, thus came to be a philosophy of experience--a rejection of mere authority, and a constant appeal to reason as a guide.

[3] "Freedom and self-reliance, these are the watchwords of these two marvelously modern men (Montaigne and Locke). Expansion, real education, drawing out, widening out, that is the burden of their preaching; and voices in the wilderness theirs were! Narrowness, bigotry, flippancy, inertia, these were the rule until Rousseau's time, and even his voice was to fall upon deaf ears in England." (Monroe, Jas. P., _Evolution of the Educational Ideal_, p. 122.)

[4] Schmidt, Karl, _Geschichte der Padagogik_, translated in Barnard's _American Journal of Education_.

[5] Rules for the schools of Dorchester, Ma.s.sachusetts.

[6] Duke Eberhard Louis's _Renewed Organization of the German School_, 1729; republished 1782.

[7] One of the earliest horn books known appears in the illuminated ma.n.u.script shown in Figure 44, which dates from 1503. The first definitely known horn book in England dates from 1587, while most, of the specimens found in museums date from about the middle of the eighteenth century. As improvements or variations of the horn book, cardboard sheets and wooden squares, known as battledores, appeared after 1770. On these the ill.u.s.trated alphabet was printed. (See Tuer, A. W., _History of the Horn Book_, 2 vols., ill.u.s.trated, London, 1886, for detailed descriptions.)

[8] The diversity of religious primers which had grown up by 1565 led Henry VIII to cause to be issued a unified and official Primer, containing the Pater Noster, Ave Maria, Credo, and the Ten Commandments.

[9] The t.i.tle-page of an edition of 1715 declares that edition to be: "_The Protestant Tutor_, instructing Youth and Others, in the compleat method of _Spelling, Reading, and Writing True English_: Also discovering to them the Notorious _Errors_, d.a.m.nable _Doctrines_, and cruel _Ma.s.sacres_ of the b.l.o.o.d.y _Papists_ which _England_ may expect from a _Popish_ Successor."

[10] This was compiled by the Westminster a.s.sembly of Divines, called together by Parliament, in 1643, composed of 121 clergymen, 30 of the laity, and 5 special commissioners from Scotland. It held 1163 sessions, extending over six years, and framed the series of 107 questions and answers which appeared in the Primer as "The Shorter Catechism."

[11] So great was the sale of this book that the author was able to support his family during the twenty years (1807-27) he was at work on his _Dictionary of the English Language_, entirely from the royalties from the _Speller_ though the copyright returns were less than one cent a copy. At the time of his death (1843), the sales were still approximately a million copies a year, and the book is still on sale.

[12] In Nuremberg, as an example of German practice, the guild of writing and arithmetic masters continued, throughout all of the eighteenth century, and even into the nineteenth, as an organization separate from that of other types of teachers.

[13] Francke, in his Inst.i.tutions at Halle (p. 418), had tried to develop a number-concept, and apply the teaching. In the Braunschweig-Luneburg school decree of 1737 appeared directions for beginning number work by counting the fingers, apples, etc., and basing the multiplication table on addition. A few German writers during the eighteenth century suggested better instruction, Basedow (chapter XXII) tried to inst.i.tute reform in the teaching of the subject, but it was left for Pestalozzi (chapter XXI) to give the first real impetus to the rational teaching of the subject.

[14] Such offices were not considered in any sense as degrading, and the attaching of the new duty of instructing the young of the parish in reading and religion dignified still more the other church office. As schools grew in importance there was a gradual shifting of emphasis, and finally a dropping of the earlier duties. Many early school contracts in America (Rs. 105; 236) called for such church duties on the part of the parish teacher. See also footnote, p. 370.

[15] In 1722 country schoolmasters in Prussia were ordered selected from tailors, weavers, blacksmiths, wheelwrights, and carpenters, and in 1738 they were granted the tailoring monopoly in their villages, to help them to live. Later Frederick the Great ordered that his crippled and superannuated soldiers should be given teaching positions in the elementary vernacular schools of Prussia.

[16] The "Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge," organized in 1609 to aid the Church and provide schools at home, and the "Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts," organized in 1702 to supply ministers and teachers for churches and schools in the English colonies.

[17] In 1704 the ordinary charge in London for a "School of 50 Boys Cloathed comes to about 75 per Annum, for which a School-Room, Books, and Firing are provided, a Master paid, and to each Boy is given yearly, 3 Bands, 1 Cap, 1 Coat, 1 Pair of Stockings, and one Pair of Shooes." A girls' school of the same size cost 60 per annum, which paid for the room, books, mistress, fixing and providing each girl with "2 Coyfs, 2 Bands, 1 Gown and Petticoat, 1 Pair of knit Gloves, 1 Pair of Stockings, and 2 Pair of Shooes."

[18] McCarthy, Justin H., _Ireland since the Union_, p. 13.

[19] Frederick the Great, in the General School Regulations issued in 1763 (R. 274, -- 15), strictly prohibited the keeping of "hedge schools" in the towns and rural districts of Prussia.

[20] Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_ (1678,) Defoe's _Robinson Crusoe_ (1719), and _Gulliver's Travels_ (1726), The publication of these tremendously stimulated the desire to read.

[21] Strype, John, _Stowe's Survey of London_, 1720; bk. 1, pp. 199, 201- 02.

[22] Paulsen, Friedrich, _German Education_, p. 141.

[23] Barnard, Henry. Translated from Karl von Raumer; in his _American Journal of Education_, vol. v., p. 509.

[24] Salmon, David, "The Education of the Poor in the Eighteenth Century"; in _Educational Record_, London, 1908.

[25] "If you would comprehend the success of Rousseau's _emile_, call to mind the children we have described, the embroidered, gilded, dressed-up, powdered little gentlemen, decked with sword and sash,... alongside of these, little ladies of six years, still more artificial,--so many veritable dolls to which rouge is applied, and with which a mother amuses herself for an hour and then consigns them to her maids for the rest of the day. This mother reads _emile_. It is not surprising that she immediately strips the poor little thing (of its social harness of whalebone, iron, and hair) and determines to nurse her next child herself." (Taine, H. A., _The Ancient Regime_, vol. II, p. 273.)

[26] Montmorency, J. E. G. de., _The Progress of Education in England_, pp. 46, 50.

[27] A change now took place in the intellectual life of Germany: "The nation began to make itself independent of French influence. In literature Klopstock and Lessing broke the fetters of French cla.s.sicism. An ardent desire for a deeper culture peculiar to the German people a.s.serted itself.

But the soil of the national life was too poor in genus for a purely German culture, hence scholars looked for new models and found them in cla.s.sical antiquity. The ancient authors became again the masters of culture and taste; with this difference, though, that it was not desired to learn how to express their thoughts as well as the learner's thoughts in Latin, but to become familiar with their manner of thinking and feeling, for the purpose of enlarging and enn.o.bling German thought and speech. From this standpoint Greek, on account of its more valuable literature, a.s.sumed a higher importance, and, by degrees, a superiority over Latin." (Nohle, E., _History of the German School System_, pp. 48- 49.)

[28] "If any one be destined for a studious career, let him not shirk his Greek lessons, inasmuch as he would thereby suffer irretrievable loss....

He who reads the cla.s.sic writers, studying mathematical reasoning at the same time, trains his mind to distinguish what is true or false, beautiful or unsightly, fills his memory with manifold fine thoughts, attains skill in grasping the ideas of others as well as in fluently expressing his own, acquires a number of excellent maxims for the improvement of the understanding and the will, and thus learns by practice nearly all that a good compendium of philosophy could teach him in systematic order and dogmatic form." (School Regulations for Braunschweig-Luneburg, of 1737.)

[29] "Be a.s.sured that if you forget your Greek, yes, even your Latin too, you still have the advantage of having given your mind a training and discipline that will go with you into your future occupation." (Friedrich Gedike, 1755-1803.)

PART IV

CHAPTER XIX

[1] "The Period of the Enlightenment" had two main aims: (1) the perfection of the individual, which gave a new emphasis to education, and (2) the mastery of man over his environment, which expressed itself through the new scientific studies. In German lands elementary education, a regenerated cla.s.sical education, and the _Realschule_ were the fruits of this period.

[2] Frederick used to say that his subjects might think as they pleased so long as they behaved as he ordered.

[3] Though Prussia was primarily Lutheran, Catholics, Mennonites, Jews, and Huguenots early found a home in the kingdom. Frederick used to say that "all religions must be tolerated, for in this country every man must go to heaven in his own way."

[4] After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (p. 301; 1685), over 20,000 French Huguenots--merchants, manufacturers, skilled workmen--found an asylum in Prussia alone. Settling in the Rhine countries, they contributed much to the future development of this region.

[5] "For the first time since Luther, the German people could call a great hero their own, whether they were the subjects of Frederick or not. Joyous pride in this prince, whose achievements in times of peace were no less than those in time of war, brought national consciousness to life again and this national feeling found expression in literature. It was the restoration of confidence in themselves that gave the Germans the courage to break with French rules and French models, and to seek independently after ideals of beauty. And this self-confidence they owed to Frederick the Great." (Priest, G. M., _History of German Literature_, p. 116.)

[6] Though Joseph II claimed to be a good Catholic, he felt that monasticism had outlived its usefulness as an inst.i.tution, and that its continuance was inimical to the interests of organized society and the State. This view has since been taken by the rulers of every progressive modern nation.

[7] The Cortes, or National Parliament, met but three times during the century, and when it did meet possessed but few powers and exercised but little influence.

[8] The first Russian university was established at Kiev, in 1588; the second at Dorpat, in 1632; the third at Moscow, in 1755; and the fourth at Kasan, in 1804. The University of Petrograd dates from 1819.

[9] The great difference between a church and true religion must always be kept in mind. Religion is a thing of the spirit, and its principle represents the loftiest thoughts of the race; a church is a human governing inst.i.tution, and clearly subject to its own ambitions and the human frailties of its age.

[10] That is, 25,000 to 30,000 families. There were also, in even numbers, 83,000 monks in 2500 monasteries (one for every ninety square miles in France), 37,000 nuns in 1500 convents, and 60,000 priests. Of the soil of France, the King and towns owned one fifth, the clergy and the monks one fifth, the n.o.bility one fifth, the bourgeoisie one fifth, and the peasantry one fifth.