LESSON II.--PARSING.

"So prone is man to society, and so happy in it, that, to relish perpetual solitude, one must be an angel or a brute. In a solitary state, no creature is more timid than man; in society, none more bold. The number of offenders lessens the disgrace of the crime; for a common reproach is no reproach. A man is more unhappy in reproaching himself when guilty, than in being reproached by others when innocent. The pains of the mind are harder to bear than those of the body. Hope, in this mixed state of good and ill, is a blessing from heaven: the gift of prescience would be a curse. The first step towards vice, is to make a mystery of what is innocent: whoever loves to hide, will soon or late have reason to hide. A man who gives his children a habit of industry, provides for them better than by giving them a stock of money. Our good and evil proceed from ourselves: death appeared terrible to Cicero, indifferent to Socrates, desirable to Cato."--Home's Art of Thinking, pp. 26-53.

"O thou most high transcendent gift of age!

Youth from its folly thus to disengage."--_Denham's Age_.

LESSON III.--PARSING.

"Calm was the day, and the scene, delightful. We may expect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion is easier than to calm it."--_Murray's Ex._, p.

5. "Better is a little with content, than a great deal with anxiety. A little attention will rectify some errors. Unthinking persons care little for the future."--See _ib._ "Still waters are commonly deepest. He laboured to still the tumult. Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid."--_Ib._ "Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones."--_Ib._ "The hail was very destructive. Hail, virtue! source of every good. We hail you as friends."--_Ib._, p. 6. "Much money makes no man happy. Think much, and speak little. He has seen much of the world."--See _ib._ "Every being loves its like. We must make a like space between the lines. Behave like men. We are apt to like pernicious company."--_Ib._ "Give me more love, or more disdain."--_Carew_. "He loved Rachel more than Leah."--_Genesis_. "But how much that more is; he hath no distinct notion."--_Locke_.

"And my more having would be as a sauce To make me hunger more."--_Shakspeare_.

CHAPTER II.--ARTICLES.

An Article is the word _the, an_, or _a_, which we put before nouns to limit their signification: as, _The_ air, _the_ stars; _an_ island, _a_ ship.

_An_ and _a_, being equivalent in meaning, are commonly reckoned _one and the same_ article. _An_ is used in preference to _a_, whenever the following word begins with a vowel sound; as, _An_ art, _an_ end, _an_ heir, _an_ inch, _an_ ounce, _an_ hour, _an_ urn. _A_ is used in preference to _an_, whenever the following word begins with a consonant sound; as, _A_ man, _a_ house, _a_ wonder, _a_ one, _a_ yew, _a_ use, _a_ ewer. Thus the consonant sounds of _w_ and _y_, even when expressed by other letters, require _a_ and not _an_ before them.

A common noun, when taken in its _widest sense_, usually admits no article: as, "A candid temper is proper for _man_; that is, for _all mankind_."--_Murray_.

In English, nouns without any article, or other definitive, are often used in a sense _indefinitely partitive_: as, "He took _bread_, and gave thanks."--_Acts_. That is, "_some bread_." "To buy _food_ are thy servants come."--_Genesis_. That is, "_some food_." "There are _fishes_ that have wings, and are not strangers to the airy region."--_Locke's Essay_, p.

322. That is, "_some fishes_."

"Words in which nothing but the _mere being_ of any thing is implied, are used without articles: as, 'This is not _beer_, but _water_;' 'This is not _brass_, but _steel_.'"--See _Dr. Johnson's Gram._, p. 5.

_An_ or _a_ before the genus, may refer to _a whole species_; and _the_ before the species, may denote that whole species emphatically: as, "_A certain bird_ is termed _the cuckoo_, from _the sound_ which it emits."--_Blair_.

But _an_ or _a_ is commonly used to denote individuals as _unknown_, or as not specially distinguished from others: as, "I see _an object_ pass by, which I never saw till now; and I say, 'There goes _a beggar_ with _a long beard_.'"--_Harris_.

And _the_ is commonly used to denote individuals as _known_, or as specially distinguished from others: as, "_The man_ departs, and returns a week after; and I say, 'There goes _the beggar_ with _the long beard_.'"--_Id._

The article _the_ is applied to nouns of cither number: as, "_The_ man, _the_ men;" "_The_ good boy, _the_ good boys."

_The_ is commonly required before adjectives that are used by ellipsis as nouns: as, "_The young_ are slaves to novelty; _the old_, to custom."--_Ld.

Kames._

The article _an_ or _a_ implies _unity_, or _one_, and of course belongs to nouns of the singular number only; as, _A_ man,--_An_ old man,--_A_ good boy.

_An_ or _a_, like _one_, sometimes gives a collective meaning to an adjective of number, when the noun following is plural; as, _A few days,--A hundred men,--One hundred pounds sterling_.

Articles should be _inserted_ as often as the sense requires them; as, "Repeat the preterit and [_the_] perfect participle of the verb _to abide_."--Error in _Merchant's American School Grammar_, p. 66.

_Needless articles_ should be omitted; they seldom fail to pervert the sense: as, "_The_ Rhine, _the_ Danube, _the_ Tanais, _the_ Po, _the_ Wolga, _the_ Ganges, like many hundreds of similar _names_, rose not from any obscure jargon or irrational dialect."--Error in _Dr. Murray's Hist. of Europ. Lang._, Vol. i, p. 327.

The articles can seldom be put _one for the other_, without gross impropriety; and of course either is to be preferred to the other, as it better suits the sense: as, "_The_ violation of this rule never fails to hurt and displease _a_ reader."--Error in _Blair's Lectures_, p. 107. Say, "_A_ violation of this rule never fails to displease _the_ reader."

CLASSES.

The articles are distinguished as the _definite_ and the _indefinite_.

I. The _definite article_ is _the_, which denotes some particular thing or things; as, _The_ boy, _the_ oranges.

II. The _indefinite article_ is _an_ or _a_, which denotes one thing of a kind, but not any particular one; as, _A_ boy, _an_ orange.

MODIFICATIONS.[133]

The English articles have no modifications, except that _an_ is shortened into _a_ before the sound of a consonant; as, "In _an_ epic poem, or _a_ poem upon _an_ elevated subject, _a_ writer ought to avoid raising _a_ simile on _a_ low image."--_Ld. Kames._

OBSERVATIONS.

OBS. 1.--No other words are so often employed as the articles. And, by reason of the various and very frequent occasions on which these definitives are required, no words are oftener misapplied; none, oftener omitted or inserted erroneously. I shall therefore copiously illustrate both their _uses_ and their _abuses_; with the hope that every reader of this volume will think it worth his while to gain that knowledge which is requisite to the true use of these small but important words. Some parts of the explanation, however, must be deferred till we come to Syntax.

OBS. 2.--With the attempts of Tooke, Dalton, Webster, Cardell, Fowle, Wells,[134] Weld, Butler Frazee, Perley, Mulligan, Pinneo, S. S. Greene, and other writers, to _degrade_ the article from its ancient rank among the parts of speech, no judicious reader, duly acquainted with the subject, can, I think, be well pleased. An article is not properly an "_adjective_,"

as they would have it to be; but it is a word of a peculiar sort--a _customary index_ to the sense of nouns. It serves not merely to show the extent of signification, in which nouns are to be taken, but is often the principal, and sometimes the only mark, by which a word is known to have the sense and construction of a noun. There is just as much reason to deny and degrade the Greek or French article, (or that of any other language,) as the English; and, if those who are so zealous to reform our _the, an_, and _a_ into _adjectives_, cared at all to appear consistent in the view of Comparative or General Grammar, they would either set about a wider reformation or back out soon from the pettiness of this.

OBS. 3.--First let it be understood, that _an_ or _a_ is nearly equivalent in meaning to the numeral adjective _one_, but less emphatic; and that _the_ is nearly equivalent in meaning to the pronominal adjective _that_ or _those_, but less emphatic. On _some_ occasions, these adjectives may well be substituted for the articles; but _not generally_. If the articles were generally equivalent to adjectives, or even if they were generally _like_ them, they would _be_ adjectives; but, that adjectives may occasionally supply their places, is no argument at all for confounding the two parts of speech. Distinctions must be made, where differences exist; and, that _a, an_, and _the_, do differ considerably from the other words which they most resemble, is shown even by some who judge "the distinctive name of _article_ to be useless." See _Crombie's Treatise_, Chap. 2. The articles therefore must be distinguished, not only from adjectives, but from each other. For, though both are _articles_, each is an index _sui generis_; the one definite, the other indefinite. And as the words _that_ and _one_ cannot often be interchanged without a difference of meaning, so the definite article and the indefinite are seldom, if ever, interchangeable.

To put one for the other, is therefore, in general, to put one _meaning_ for an other: "_A_ daughter of _a_ poor man"--"_The_ daughter of _the_ poor man"--"_A_ daughter of _the_ poor man"--and, "_The_ daughter of _a_ poor man," are four phrases which certainly have four different and distinct significations. This difference between the two articles may be further illustrated by the following example: "That Jesus was _a_ prophet sent from God, is one proposition; that Jesus was _the_ prophet, _the_ Messiah, is an other; and, though he certainly was both _a_ prophet and _the_ prophet, yet _the_ foundations of _the_ proof of these propositions are separate and distinct."--_Watson's Apology_, p. 105.

OBS. 4.--Common nouns are, for the most part, names of large classes of objects; and, though what really constitutes the species must always be found entire in every individual, the several objects thus arranged under one general name or idea, are in most instances susceptible of such a numerical distribution as gives rise to an other form of the noun, expressive of plurality; as, _horse, horses_. Proper nouns in their ordinary application, are, for the most part, names of particular individuals; and as there is no plurality to a particular idea, or to an individual person or thing as distinguished from all others, so there is in general none to this class of nouns; and no room for _further restriction by articles_. But we sometimes divert such nouns from their usual signification, and consequently employ them with articles or in the plural form; as, "I endeavoured to retain it nakedly in my mind, without regarding whether I had it from _an Aristotle_ or _a Zoilus, a Newton_ or _a Descartes_."--_Churchill's Gram._, Pref., p. 8. "It is not enough to have _Vitruviuses_, we must also have _Augustuses_ to employ them."--_Bicknell's Gram._, Part ii, p. 61.

"_A Daniel_ come to judgment! yea, _a Daniel_!"

--SHAK. _Shylock_.

"Great Homer, in _th' Achilles_, whom he drew, Sets not that one sole Person in our View."

--_Brightland's Gram._, p. 183.

OBS. 5.--The article _an_ or _a_ usually denotes one out of several or many; one of a sort of which there are more; any one of that name, no matter which. Hence its effect upon a particular name, or proper noun, is _directly the reverse_ of that which it has upon a common noun. It varies and fixes the meaning of both; but while it restricts that of the latter, it enlarges that of the former. It reduces the general idea of the common noun to any one individual of the class: as, "_A man_;" that is, "_One man_, or _any man_." On the contrary, it extends the particular idea of the proper noun, and makes the word significant of a class, by supposing others to whom it will apply: as, "_A Nero_;" that is, "_Any Nero_, or _any cruel tyrant_." Sometimes, however, this article before a proper name, seems to leave the idea still particular; but, if it really does so, the propriety of using it may be doubted: as, "No, not by _a John the Baptist_ risen from the dead."--_Henry's Expos., Mark_, vi. "It was not solely owing to the madness and depravity of _a Tiberius, a Caligula, a Nero_, or _a Caracalla_, that a cruel and sanguinary spirit, in their day, was so universal."--_M'Ilvaine's Evid._, p. 398.

OBS. 6.--With the definite article, the noun is applied, sometimes specifically, sometimes individually, but always _definitely_, always distinctively. This article is demonstrative. It marks either the particular individual, or the particular species,--or, (if the noun be plural,) some particular individuals of the species,--as being distinguished from all others. It sometimes refers to a thing as having been previously mentioned; sometimes presumes upon the hearer's familiarity with the thing; and sometimes indicates a limitation which is made by subsequent words connected with the noun. Such is the import of this article, that with it the singular number of the noun is often more comprehensive, and at the same time more specific, than the plural. Thus, if I say, "_The horse_ is a noble animal," without otherwise intimating that I speak of some particular horse, the sentence will be understood to embrace collectively _that species_ of animal; and I shall be thought to mean, "Horses are noble animals." But if I say, "_The horses_ are noble animals," I use an expression so much more limited, as to include only a few; it must mean some particular horses, which I distinguish from all the rest of the species. Such limitations should be made, whenever there is occasion for them; but needless restrictions displease the imagination, and ought to be avoided; because the mind naturally delights in terms as comprehensive as they may be, if also specific. Lindley Murray, though not uniform in his practice respecting this, seems to have thought it necessary to use the plural in many sentences in which I should decidedly prefer the singular; as, "That _the learners_ may have no doubts."--_Murray's Octavo Gram._, Vol. i, p. 81. "The business will not be tedious to _the scholars_."--_Ib._, 81. "For the information of _the learners_."--_Ib._, 81. "It may afford instruction to _the learners_."--_Ib._, 110. "That this is the case, _the learners_ will perceive by the following examples."--_Ib._, 326. "Some knowledge of it appears to be indispensable to _the scholars_."--_Ib._, 335.

OBS. 7.--Proper names of a plural form and signification, are almost always preceded by the definite article; as, "_The Wesleys_,"--"_The twelve Caesars_,"--"_All the Howards_." So the names of particular nations, tribes, and sects; as, _The Romans, the Jews, the Levites, the Stoics_. Likewise the plural names of mountains; as, _The Alps, the Apennines, the Pyrenees, the Andes_. Of plural names like these, and especially of such as designate tribes and sects, there is a very great number. Like other proper names, they must be distinguished from the ordinary words of the language, and accordingly they are always written with capitals; but they partake so largely of the nature of common nouns, that it seems doubtful to which class they most properly belong. Hence they not only admit, but require the article; while most other proper names are so definite in themselves, that the article, if put before them, would be needless, and therefore improper.

"_Nash, Rutledge, Jefferson_, in council great, And _Jay_, and _Laurens_ oped the rolls of fate; _The Livingstons_, fair freedoms generous band, _The Lees, the Houstons_, fathers of the land."--_Barlow_.

OBS. 8.--In prose, the definite article is always used before names of rivers, unless the word _river_, be added; as, _The Delaware, the Hudson, the Connecticut_. But if the word _river_ be added, the article becomes needless; as, _Delaware river, Hudson river, Connecticut river_. Yet there seems to be no impropriety in using both; as, _The Delaware river, the Hudson river, the Connecticut river_. And if the common noun be placed before the proper name, the article is again necessary; as, _The river Delaware, the river Hudson, the river Connecticut_. In the first form of expression, however, the article has not usually been resolved by grammarians as relating to the proper name; but these examples, and others of a similar character, have been supposed elliptical: as, "_The_ [river]

_Potomac_"--"_The_ [ship] _Constitution_,"--"_The_ [steamboat] _Fulton_."

Upon this supposition, the words in the first and fourth forms are to be parsed alike; the article relating to the common noun, expressed or understood, and the proper noun being in apposition with the appellative.

But in the second form, the apposition is reversed; and, in the third, the proper name appears to be taken adjectively. Without the article, some names of rivers could not be understood; as,

"No more _the Varus_ and _the Atax_ feel The lordly burden of the Latian keel."--_Rowe's Lucan_, B. i. l. 722.