[Sidenote: MOULINS EXPLAINED.]

But although this portion of the glacier is free from those long-continued and permanent strains which, having once rent the ice, tend subsequently to widen the rent and produce yawning creva.s.ses, it is not free from local strains sufficient to produce _cracks_ which penetrate the glacier to a great depth. Imagine such a crack intersecting such a glacier-rivulet as we have described. The water rushes down it, and soon scoops a funnel large enough to engulf the entire stream. The moulin is thus formed, and, as the ice moves downward, the sides of the crack are squeezed together and regelated, the seam which marks the line of junction being in most cases distinctly visible. But as the motion continues, other portions of the glacier come into the same state of strain as that which produced the first crack; a second one is formed across the stream, the old shaft is forsaken, and a new one is hollowed out, in which for a season the cataract plays the thunderer. I have in some cases counted the forsaken shafts of six old moulins in advance of an active one. Not far from the Grand Moulin of the Mer de Glace in 1857 there was a second empty shaft, which evidently communicated by a subglacial duct with that into which the torrent was precipitated. Out of the old orifice issued a strong cold blast, the air being manifestly impelled through the duct by the falling water of the adjacent moulin.

These shafts are always found in the same locality; the portion of the Mer de Glace to which I have referred is never without them. Some of the guides affirm that they are motionless; and a statement of Prof. Forbes has led to the belief that this was also his opinion.[A] M. Aga.s.siz, however, observed the motion of some of these shafts upon the glacier of the Aar; and when on the spot in 1857, I was anxious to decide the point by accurate measurements with the theodolite.

My friend Mr. Hirst took charge of the instrument, and on the 28th of July I fixed a single stake beside the Grand Moulin, in a straight line between a station at Trelaporte and a well-defined mark on the rock at the opposite side of the valley. On the 31st, the displacement of the stake amounted to 50 inches, and on the 1st of August it had moved 74-1/2 inches--the moulin, to all appearance, occupying throughout the same position with regard to the stake. To render this certain, moreover we subsequently drove two additional stakes into the ice, thus enclosing the mouth of the shaft in a triangle. On the 8th of August the displacements were measured and gave the following results:--

Total Motion.

First (old) stake 198 inches.

Second (new) do. 123 "

Third 124 "

[Sidenote: MOTION OF THE MOULINS.]

The old stake had been fixed for 11 days, and its daily motion--_which was also that of the moulin_--averaged 18 inches a day. Hence the moulins share the general motion of the glacier, and their apparent permanence is not, as has been alleged, a proof of the semi-fluidity of the glacier, but is due to the breaking of the ice as it pa.s.ses the place of local strain.

[Sidenote: DEPTH OF "GRAND MOULIN" SOUGHT.]

Wishing to obtain some estimate as to the depth of the ice, Mr. Hirst undertook the sounding of some of the moulins upon the Glacier de Lechaud, making use of a tin vessel filled with lumps of lead and iron as a weight. The cord gave way and he lost his plummet. To measure the depth of the Grand Moulin, we obtained fresh cord from Chamouni, to which we attached a four-pound weight. Into a cavity at the bottom of the weight we stuffed a quant.i.ty of b.u.t.ter, to indicate the nature of the bottom against which the weight might strike. The weight was dropped into the shaft, and the cord paid out until its slackening informed us that the weight had come to rest; by shaking the string, however, and walking round the edge of the shaft, the weight was liberated, and sank some distance further. The cord partially slackened a second time, but the strain still remaining was sufficient to render it doubtful whether it was the weight or the action of the falling water which produced it.

We accordingly paid out the cord to the end, but, on withdrawing it, found that the greater part of it had been coiled and knotted up by the falling water. We uncoiled, and sounded again. At a depth of 132 feet the weight reached a ledge or protuberance of ice, and by shaking and lifting it, it was caused to descend 31 feet more. A depth of 163 feet was the utmost we could attain to. We sounded the old moulin to a depth of 90 feet; while a third little shaft, beside the large one, measured only 18 feet in depth. We could see the water escape from it through a lateral ca.n.a.l at its bottom, and doubtless the water of the Grand Moulin found a similar exit. There was no trace of dirt upon the b.u.t.ter, which might have indicated that we had reached the bed of the glacier.

FOOTNOTES:

[A] "Every year, and year after year, the watercourses follow the same lines of direction--their streams are precipitated into the heart of the glacier by vertical funnels, called 'moulins,' at the very same points."--Forbes's Fourth Letter upon Glaciers: 'Occ. Pap.,' p. 29.

[Ill.u.s.tration: DIRT-BANDS OF THE MER DE GLACE, AS SEEN FROM A POINT NEAR THE FLeGeRE.

Fig. 35. _To face p. 367._]

DIRT-BANDS OF THE MER DE GLACE.

(26.)

[Sidenote: DIRT-BANDS FROM THE FLEGeRE.]

These bands were first noticed by Prof. Forbes on the 24th of July, 1842, and were described by him in the following words:--"My eye was caught by a very peculiar appearance of the surface of the ice, which I was certain that I now saw for the first time. It consisted of nearly hyperbolic brownish bands on the glacier, the curves pointing downwards, and the two branches mingling indiscriminately with the moraines, presenting an appearance of a succession of waves some hundred feet apart."[A] From no single point of view hitherto attained can all the Dirt-Bands of the Mer de Glace be seen at once. To see those on the terminal portion of the glacier, a station ought to be chosen on the opposite range of the Brevent, a few hundred yards beyond the Croix de la Flegere, where we stand exactly in front of the glacier as it issues into the valley of Chamouni. The appearance of the bands upon the portion here seen is represented in Fig. 35.

It will be seen that the bands are confined to one side of the glacier, and either do not exist, or are obliterated by the debris, upon the other side. The cause of the acc.u.mulation of dirt on the right side of the glacier is, that no less than five moraines are crowded together at this side. In the upper portions of the Mer de Glace these moraines are distinct from each other; but in descending, the successive engulfments and disgorgings of the blocks and dirt have broken up the moraines; and at the place now before us the materials which composed them are strewn confusedly on the right side of the glacier. The portion of the ice on which the dirt-bands appear is derived from the Col du Geant. They do not quite extend to the end of the glacier, being obliterated by the dislocation of the ice upon the frozen cascade of Des Bois.

[Sidenote: DIRT-BANDS FROM LES CHARMOZ.]

Let us now proceed across the valley of Chamouni to the Montanvert; where, climbing the adjacent heights to an elevation of six or eight hundred feet above the hotel, we command a view of the Mer de Glace, from Trelaporte almost to the commencement of the Glacier des Bois. It was from this position that Professor Forbes first observed the bands.

Fifteen, sixteen, and seventeen years later I observed them from the same position. The number of bands which Professor Forbes counted from this position was eighteen, with which my observations agree. The entire series of bands which I observed, with the exception of one or two, must have been the _successors_ of those observed by Professor Forbes; and my finding the same number after an interval of so many years proves that the bands must be due to some regularly recurrent cause. Fig. 36 represents the bands as seen from the heights adjacent to the Montanvert.

[Ill.u.s.tration: DIRT-BANDS OF THE MER DE GLACE, AS SEEN FROM LES CHARMOZ.

Fig. 36. _To face p. 368._]

I would here direct attention to an a.n.a.logy between a glacier and a river, which may be observed from the heights above the Montanvert, but to which no reference, as far as I know, has. .h.i.therto been made. When a river meets the b.u.t.tress of a bridge, the water rises against it, and, on sweeping round it, forms an elevated ridge, between which and the pier a depression occurs which varies in depth with the force of the current. This effect is shown by the Mer de Glace on an exaggerated scale. Sweeping round Trelaporte, the ice pushes itself beyond the promontory in an elevated ridge, from which it drops by a gradual slope to the adjacent wall of the valley, thus forming a depression typified by that already alluded to. A similar effect is observed at the opposite side of the glacier on turning round the Echelets; and both combine to form a kind of skew surface. A careful inspection of the frontispiece will detect this peculiarity in the shape of the glacier.

[Sidenote: FROM THE CLEFT-STATION.]

From neither of the stations referred to do we obtain any clue to the origin of the dirt-bands. A stiff but pleasant climb will place us in that singular cleft in the cliffy mountain-ridge which is seen to the right of the frontispiece; and from it we easily attain the high platform of rock immediately to the left of it. We stand here high above the promontory of Trelaporte, and occupy the finest station from which the Mer de Glace and its tributaries can be viewed. From this station we trace the dirt-bands over most of the ice that we have already scanned, and have the further advantage of being able to follow them to their very source.

This source is the grand ice-cascade which descends in a succession of precipices from the plateau of the Col du Geant into the valley which the Glacier du Geant fills. We see from our present point of view that the bands _are confined to the portion of the glacier which has descended the cascade_. Fig. 37 represents the bands as seen from the Cleft-station above Trelaporte.

[Ill.u.s.tration: DIRT-BANDS OF THE MER DE GLACE, AS SEEN FROM THE CLEFT STATION, TReLAPORTE.

Fig. 37. _To face p. 369._]

We are now however at such a height above the glacier and at such a distance from the base of the cascade, that we can form but an imperfect notion of the true contour of the surface. Let us therefore descend, and walk up the Glacier du Geant towards the cascade. At first our road is level, but we gradually find that at certain intervals we have to ascend slopes which follow each other in succession, each being separated from its neighbour by a s.p.a.ce of comparatively level ice. The slopes increase in steepness as we ascend; they are steepest, moreover, on the right-hand side of the glacier, where it is bounded by that from the Periades, and at length we are unable to climb them without the aid of an axe. Soon afterwards the dislocation of the glacier becomes considerable; we are lost in the clefts and depressions of the ice, and are unable to obtain a view sufficiently commanding to subdue these local appearances and convey to us the general aspect. We have at all events satisfied ourselves as to the existence, on the upper portion of the glacier, of a succession of undulations which sweep transversely across it. The term "wrinkles," applied to them by Prof. Forbes, is highly suggestive of the appearance which they present.

[Sidenote: SNOW-BANDS ON THE GLACIER DU GeANT.]

From the Cleft-station bands of snow may also be seen partially crossing the glacier in correspondence with the undulations upon its surface. If the quant.i.ty deposited the winter previous be large, and the heat of summer not too great, these bands extend quite across the glacier. They were first observed by Professor Forbes in 1843. In his Fifth Letter is given an ill.u.s.trative diagram, which, though erroneous as regards the position of the veined structure, is quite correct in limiting the snow-bands to the Glacier du Geant proper.

At the place where the three welded tributaries of the Mer de Glace squeeze themselves through the strait of Trelaporte, the bands undergo a considerable modification in shape. Near their origin they sweep across the Glacier du Geant in gentle curves, with their convexities directed downwards; but at Trelaporte these curves, the chords of which a short time previous measured a thousand yards in length, have to squeeze themselves through a s.p.a.ce of four hundred and ninety-five yards wide; and as might be expected, they are here suddenly sharpened. The apex of each being thrust forward, they take the form of sharp hyperbolas, and preserve this character throughout the entire length of the Mer de Glace.

I would now conduct the reader to a point from which a good general view of the ice cascade of the Geant is attainable. From the old moraine near the lake of the Tacul we observe the ice, as it descends the fall, to be broken into a succession of precipices. It would appear as if the glacier had its back periodically broken at the summit of the fall, and formed a series of vast chasms separated from each other by cliffy ridges of corresponding size. These, as they approach the bottom of the fall, become more and more toned down by the action of sun and air, and at some distance below the base of the cascade they are subdued so as to form the transverse undulations already described. These undulations are more and more reduced as the glacier descends; and long before the Tacul is attained, every sensible trace of them has disappeared. The terraces of the ice-fall are referred to by Professor Forbes in his Thirteenth Letter, where he thus describes them:--"The ice-falls succeed one another at regulated intervals, which appear to correspond to the renewal of each summer's activity in those realms of almost perpetual frost, when a swifter motion occasions a more rapid and wholesale projection of the ma.s.s over the steep, thus forming curvilinear terraces like vast stairs, which appear afterwards by consolidation to form the remarkable protuberant wrinkles on the surface of the Glacier du Geant."

[Sidenote: FORBES'S EXPLANATION.]

With regard to the cause of the distribution of the dirt in bands, Professor Forbes writes thus in his Third Letter:--"I at length a.s.sured myself that it was entirely owing to the structure of the ice, which retains the dirt diffused by avalanches and the weather on those parts which are most porous, whilst the compacter portion is washed clean by the rain, so that those bands are nothing more than visible traces of the direction of the internal icy structure." Professor Forbes's theory, at that time, was that the glacier is composed throughout of a series of alternate segments of hard and porous ice, in the latter of which the dirt found a lodgment. I do not know whether he now retains his first opinion; but in his Fifteenth Letter he speaks of accounting for "the less compact structure of the ice beneath the dirt-band."

It appears to me that in the above explanation cause has been mistaken for effect. The ice on which the dirt-bands rest certainly appears to be of a spongier character than the cleaner intermediate ice; but instead of this being the cause of the dirt-bands, the latter, I imagine, by their more copious absorption of the sun's rays and the consequent greater disintegration of the ice, are the cause of the apparent porosity. I have not been able to detect any relative porosity in the "internal icy structure," nor am I able to find in the writings of Professor Forbes a description of the experiments whereby he satisfied himself that this a.s.sumed difference exists.

[Sidenote: TRANSVERSE UNDULATIONS.]

[Sidenote: INFLUENCE OF DIRECTION OF GLACIER.]

Several days of the summer of 1857 were devoted by me to the examination of these bands. I then found the bases and the frontal slopes of the undulations to which I have referred covered with a fine brown mud.

These slopes were also, in some cases, covered with snow which the great heat of the weather had not been able entirely to remove. At places where the residue of snow was small its surface was exceedingly dirty--so dirty indeed that it appeared as if peat-mould had been strewn over it; its edges particularly were of a black brown. It was perfectly manifest that this snow formed a receptacle for the fine dirt transported by the innumerable little rills which trickled over the glacier. The snow gradually wasted, but it left its sediment behind, and thus each of the snowy bands observed by Professor Forbes in 1843, contributed to produce an appearance perfectly ant.i.thetical to its own.

I have said that the frontal slopes of the undulations were thus covered; and it was on these, and not in the depressions, that the snow princ.i.p.ally rested. The reason of this is to be found in the _bearing_ of the Glacier du Geant, which, looking downwards, is about fourteen degrees east of the meridian.[B] Hence the frontal slopes of the undulations have a _northern aspect_, and it is this circ.u.mstance which, in my opinion, causes the retention of the snow upon them. Irrespective of the snow, the mere tendency of the dirt to acc.u.mulate at the bases of the undulations would also produce bands, and indeed does so on many glaciers; but the precision and beauty of the dirt-bands of the Mer de Glace are, I think, to be mainly referred to the interception by the snow of the fine dark mud before referred to on the northern slopes of its undulations.

[Sidenote: BANDS DO NOT CROSS MORAINES.]

Were the statements of some writers upon this subject well founded, or were the dirt-bands as drawn upon the map of Professor Forbes correctly shown, this explanation could not stand a moment. It has been urged that the dirt-bands cannot thus belong to a single tributary of the Mer de Glace; for if they did, they would be confined to that tributary upon the trunk-glacier; whereas the fact is that they extend quite across the trunk, and intersect the moraines which divide the Glacier du Geant from its fellow-tributaries. From my first acquaintance with the Mer de Glace I had reason to believe that this statement was incorrect; but last year I climbed a third time to the Cleft-station for the purpose of once more inspecting the bands from this fine position. I was accompanied by Dr.

Frankland and Auguste Balmat, and I drew the attention of both particularly to this point. Neither of them could discern, nor could I, the slightest trace of a dirt-band crossing any one of the moraines.

Upon the trunk-stream they were just as much confined to the Glacier du Geant as ever. If the bands even existed east of the moraines, they could not be seen, the dirt on this part of the glacier being sufficient to mask them.

The following interesting fact may perhaps have contributed to the production of the error referred to. Opposite to Trelaporte the eastern arms of the dirt-bands run so obliquely into the moraine of La Noire that the latter appears to be a tangent to them. But this moraine runs along the Mer de Glace, not far from its centre, and consequently the point of contact of each dirt-band with the moraine moves more quickly than the point of contact of the western arm of the same band with the side of the valley. Hence there is a tendency to _straighten_ the bands; and at some distance down the glacier the effect of this is seen in the bands ab.u.t.ting against the moraine of La Noire at a larger angle than before. The branches thus ab.u.t.ting have, I believe, been ideally prolonged across the moraines.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 38. Plan of Dirt-bands taken from Johnson's 'Physical Atlas.']

On the map published by Prof. Forbes in 1843 the bands are shown crossing the medial moraines of the Mer de Glace; and they are also thus drawn on the map in Johnson's 'Physical Atlas' published in 1849. The text is also in accordance with the map:--"Opposite to the Montanvert, and beyond les Echelets, the curved loops (dirt-bands) extend _across the entire glacier_. They are single, and therefore _cut_ the medial moraine, though at a very slight angle."--'Travels,' p. 166. The italics here belong to Prof. Forbes. In order to help future observers to place this point beyond doubt, I annex, in Fig. 38, a portion of the map of the Mer de Glace taken from the Atlas referred to. If it be compared with Fig. 35 the difference between Prof. Forbes and myself will be clearly seen. The portion of the glacier represented in both diagrams may be viewed from the point near the Flegere already referred to.

[Sidenote: ANNUAL "RINGS."]