CHAPTER XIII

METAMORPHISM AND MINERAL VEINS

Under the action of internal agencies rocks of all kinds may be rendered harder, more firmly cemented, and more crystalline. These processes are known as METAMORPHISM, and the rocks affected, whether originally sedimentary or igneous, are called METAMORPHIC ROCKS. We may contrast with metamorphism the action of external agencies in weathering, which render rocks less coherent by dissolving their soluble parts and breaking down their crystalline grains.

CONTACT METAMORPHISM. Rocks beneath a lava flow or in contact with igneous intrusions are found to be metamorphosed to various degrees by the heat of the cooling ma.s.s. The adjacent strata may be changed only in color, hardness, and texture. Thus, next to a dike, bituminous coal may be baked to c.o.ke or anthracite, and chalk and limestone to crystalline marble. Sandstone may be converted into quartzite, and shale into ARGILLITE, a compact, ma.s.sive clay rock. New minerals may also be developed. In sedimentary rocks there may be produced crystals of mica and of GARNET (a mineral as hard as quartz, commonly occurring in red, twelve-sided crystals). Where the changes are most profound, rocks may be wholly made over in structure and mineral composition.

In contact metamorphism, thin sheets of molten rock produce less effect than thicker ones. The strongest heat effects are naturally caused by bosses and regional intrusions, and the zone of change about them may be several miles in width. In these changes heated waters and vapors from the ma.s.ses of igneous rocks undoubtedly play a very important part.

Which will be more strongly altered, the rocks about a closed dike in which lava began to cool as soon as it filled the fissure, or the rocks about a dike which opened on the surface and through which the molten rock flowed for some time?

Taking into consideration the part played by heated waters, which will produce the most far-reaching metamorphism, dikes which cut across the bedding planes or intrusive sheets which are thrust between the strata?

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM. Metamorphic rocks occur wide-spread in many regions, often hundreds of square miles in area, where such extensive changes cannot be accounted for by igneous intrusions.

Such are the dissected cores of lofty mountains, as the Alps, and the worn-down bases of ancient ranges, as in New England, large areas in the Piedmont Belt, and the Laurentian peneplain.

In these regions the rocks have yielded to immense pressure. They have been folded, crumpled, and mashed, and even their minute grains, as one may see with a microscope, have often been puckered, broken, and crushed to powder. It is to these mechanical movements and strains which the rocks have suffered in every part that we may attribute their metamorphism, and the degree to which they have been changed is in direct proportion to the degree to which they have been deformed and mashed.

Other factors, however, have played important parts. Rock crushing develops heat, and allows a freer circulation of heated waters and vapors. Thus chemical reactions are greatly quickened; minerals are dissolved and redeposited in new positions, or their chemical const.i.tuents may recombine in new minerals, entirely changing the nature of the rock, as when, for example, feldspar recrystallizes as quartz and mica.

Early stages of metamorphism are seen in SLATE. Pressure has hardened the marine muds, the arkose, or the volcanic ash from which slates are derived, and has caused them to cleave by the rearrangement of their particles.

Under somewhat greater pressure, slate becomes PHYLLITE, a clay slate whose cleavage surfaces are l.u.s.trous with flat-lying mica flakes. The same pressure which has caused the rock to cleave has set free some of its mineral const.i.tuents along the cleavage planes to crystallize there as mica.

FOLIATION. Under still stronger pressure the whole structure of the rock is altered. The minerals of which it is composed, and the new minerals which develop by heat and pressure, arrange themselves along planes of cleavage or of shear in rudely parallel leaves, or FOLIA. Of this structure, called FOLIATION, we may distinguish two types,--a coa.r.s.er feldspathic type, and a fine type in which other minerals than feldspar predominate.

GNEISS is the general name under which are comprised coa.r.s.ely foliated rocks banded with irregular layers of feldspar and other minerals. The gneisses appear to be due in many cases to the crushing and shearing of deep-seated igneous rocks, such as granite and gabbro.

THE CRYSTALLINE SCHISTS, representing the finer types of foliation, consist of thin, parallel, crystalline leaves, which are often remarkably crumpled. These folia can be distinguished from the laminae of sedimentary rocks by their lenticular form and lack of continuity, and especially by the fact that they consist of platy, crystalline grains, and not of particles rounded by wear.

MICA SCHIST, the most common of schists, and in fact of all metamorphic rocks, is composed of mica and quartz in alternating wavy folia. All gradations between it and phyllite may be traced, and in many cases we may prove it due to the metamorphism of slates and shales. It is widespread in New England and along the eastern side of the Appalachians. TALC SCHIST consists of quartz and TALC, a light-colored magnesian mineral of greasy feel, and so soft that it can be scratched with the thumb nail.

HORNBLENDE SCHIST, resulting in many cases from the foliation of basic igneous rocks, is made of folia of hornblende alternating with bands of quartz and feldspar. Hornblende schist is common over large areas in the Lake Superior region.

QUARTZ SCHIST is produced from quartzite by the development of fine folia of mica along planes of shear. All gradations may be found between it and unfoliated quartzite on the one hand and mica schist on the other.

Under the resistless pressure of crustal movements almost any rocks, sandstones, shales, lavas of all kinds, granites, diorites, and gabbros may be metamorphosed into schists by crushing and shearing. Limestones, however, are metamorphosed by pressure into marble, the grains of carbonate of lime recrystallizing freely to interlocking crystals of calcite.

These few examples must suffice of the great cla.s.s of metamorphic rocks. As we have seen, they owe their origin to the alteration of both of the other cla.s.ses of rocks--the sedimentary and the igneous--by heat and pressure, a.s.sisted usually by the presence of water. The fact of change is seen in their hardness arid cementation, their more or less complete recrystallization, and their foliation; but the change is often so complete that no trace of their original structure and mineral composition remains to tell whether the rocks from which they were derived were sedimentary or igneous, or to what variety of either of these cla.s.ses they belonged.

In many cases, however, the early history of a metamorphic rock can be deciphered. Fossils not wholly obliterated may prove it originally water-laid. Schists may contain rolled-out pebbles, showing their derivation from a conglomerate. Dikes of igneous rocks may be followed into a region where they have been foliated by pressure. The most thoroughly metamorphosed rocks may sometimes be traced out into unaltered sedimentary or igneous rocks, or among them may be found patches of little change where their history maybe read.

Metamorphism is most common among rocks of the earlier geological ages, and most rare among rocks of recent formation. No doubt it is now in progress where deep-buried sediments are invaded by heat either from intrusive igneous ma.s.ses or from the earth's interior, or are suffering slow deformation under the thrust of mountain-making forces.

Suggest how rocks now in process of metamorphism may sometimes be exposed to view. Why do metamorphic rocks appear on the surface to-day?

MINERAL VEINS

In regions of folded and broken rocks fissures are frequently found to be filled with sheets of crystalline minerals deposited from solution by underground water, and fissures thus filled are known as mineral veins. Much of the importance of mineral veins is due to the fact that they are often metalliferous, carrying valuable native metals and metallic ores disseminated in fine particles, in strings, and sometimes in large ma.s.ses in the midst of the valueless nonmetallic minerals which make up what is known as the VEIN STONE.

The most common vein stones are QUARTZ and CALCITE. FLUORITE (calcium fluoride), a mineral harder than calcite and crystallizing in cubes of various colors, and BARITE (barium sulphate), a heavy white mineral, are abundant in many veins.

The gold-bearing quartz veins of California traverse the metamorphic slates of the Sierra Nevada Mountains. Below the zone of solution (p. 45) these veins consist of a vein stone of quartz mingled with pyrite (p. 13), the latter containing threads and grains of native gold. But to the depth of about fifty feet from the surface the pyrite of the vein has been dissolved, leaving a rusty, cellular quartz with grains of the insoluble gold scattered through it.

The PLACER DEPOSITS of California and other regions are gold- bearing deposits of gravel and sand in river beds. The heavy gold is apt to be found mostly near or upon the solid rock, and its grains, like those of the sand, are always rounded. How the gold came in the placers we may leave the pupil to suggest.

Copper is found in a number of ores, and also in the native metal.

Below the zone of surface changes the ore of a copper vein is often a double sulphide of iron and copper called CHALCOPYRITE, a mineral softer than pyrite--it can easily be scratched with a knife--and deeper yellow in color. For several score of feet below the ground the vein may consist of rusty quartz from which the metallic ores have been dissolved; but at the base of the zone of solution we may find exceedingly rich deposits of copper ores,-- copper sulphides, red and black copper oxides, and green and blue copper carbonates, which have clearly been brought down in solution from the leached upper portion of the vein.

ORIGIN OF MINERAL VEINS. Both vein stones and ores have been deposited slowly from solution in water, much as crystals of salt are deposited on the sides of a jar of saturated brine. In our study of underground water we learned that it is everywhere circulating through the permeable rocks of the crust, descending to profound depths under the action of gravity and again driven to the surface by hydrostatic pressure. Now fissures, wherever they occur, form the trunk channels of the underground circulation.

Water descends from the surface along these rifts; it moves laterally from either side to the fissure plane, just as ground water seeps through the surrounding rocks from every direction to a well; and it ascends through these natural water ways as in an artesian well, whenever they intersect an aquifer in which water is under hydrostatic pressure.

The waters which deposit vein stones and ores are commonly hot, and in many cases they have derived their heat from intrusions of igneous rock still uncooled within the crust. The solvent power of the water is thus greatly increased, and it takes up into solution various substances from the igneous and sedimentary rocks which it traverses. For various reasons these substances stances are deposited in the vein as ores and vein stones. On rising through the fissure the water cools and loses pressure, and its capacity to hold minerals in solution is therefore lessened. Besides, as different currents meet in the fissure, some ascending, some descending, and some coming in from the sides, the chemical reaction of these various weak solutions upon one another and upon the walls of the vein precipitates the minerals of vein stuffs and ores.

As an ill.u.s.tration of the method of vein deposits we may cite the case of a wooden box pipe used in the Comstock mines, Nevada, to carry the hot water of the mine from one level to another, which in ten years was lined with calcium carbonate more than half an inch thick.

The Steamboat Springs, Nevada, furnish examples of mineral veins in process of formation. The steaming water rises through fissures in volcanic rocks and is now depositing in the rifts a vein stone of quartz, with metallic ores of iron, mercury, lead, and other metals.

RECONCENTRATION. Near the base of the zone of solution veins are often stored with exceptionally large and valuable ore deposits.

This local enrichment of the vein is due to the reconcentration of its metalliferous ores. As the surface of the land is slowly lowered by weathering and running water, the zone of solution is lowered at an equal rate and encroaches constantly on the zone of cementation. The minerals of veins are therefore constantly being dissolved along their upper portions and carried down the fissures by ground water to lower levels, where they are redeposited.

Many of the richest ore deposits are thus due to successive concentrations: the ores were leached originally from the rocks to a large extent by laterally seeping waters; they were concentrated in the ore deposits of the vein chiefly by ascending currents; they have been reconcentrated by descending waters in the way just mentioned.

THE ORIGINAL SOURCE OF THE METALS. It is to the igneous rocks that we may look for the original source of the metals of veins. Lavas contain minute percentages of various metallic compounds, and no doubt this was the case also with the igneous rocks which formed the original earth crust. By the erosion of the igneous rocks the metals have been distributed among sedimentary strata, and even the sea has taken into solution an appreciable amount of gold and other metals, but in this widely diffused condition they are wholly useless to man. The concentration which has made them available is due to the interaction of many agencies. Earth movements fracturing deeply the rocks of the crust, the intrusion of heated ma.s.ses, the circulation of underground waters, have all cooperated in the concentration of the metals of mineral veins.

While fissure veins are the most important of mineral veins, the latter term is applied also to any water way which has been filled by similar deposits from solution. Thus in soluble rocks, such as limestones, joints enlarged by percolating water are sometimes filled with metalliferous deposits, as, for example, the lead and zinc deposits of the upper Mississippi valley. Even a porous aquifer may be made the seat of mineral deposits, as in the case of some copper-bearing and silver-bearing sandstones of New Mexico.

PART III

HISTORICAL GEOLOGY

CHAPTER XIV

THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD

WHAT A FORMATION RECORDS. We have already learned that each individual body of stratified rock, or formation, const.i.tutes a record of the time when it was laid. The structure and the character of the sediments of each formation tell whether the area was land or sea at the time when they were spread; and if the former, whether the land was river plain, or lake bed, or was covered with wind-blown sands, or by the deposits of an ice sheet.

If the sediments are marine, we may know also whether they were laid in shoal water near the sh.o.r.e or in deeper water out at sea, and whether during a period of emergence, or during a period of subsidence when the sea transgressed the land. By the same means each formation records the stage in the cycle of erosion of the land ma.s.s from which its sediments were derived. An unconformity between two marine formations records the fact that between the periods when they were deposited in the sea the area emerged as land and suffered erosion. The att.i.tude and structure of the strata tell also of the foldings and fractures, the deformation and the metamorphism, which they have suffered; and the igneous rocks a.s.sociated with them as lava flows and igneous intrusions add other details to the story. Each formation is thus a separate local chapter in the geological history of the earth, and its strata are its leaves. It contains an authentic record of the physical conditions--the geography--of the time and place when and where its sediments were laid.

PAST CYCLES OF EROSION. These chapters in the history of the planet are very numerous, although much of the record has been destroyed in various ways. A succession of different formations is usually seen in any considerable section of the crust, such as a deep canyon or where the edges of upturned strata are exposed to view on the flanks of mountain ranges; and in any extensive area, such as a state of the Union or a province of Canada, the number of formations outcropping on the surface is large.

It is thus learned that our present continent is made up for. the most part of old continental deltas. Some, recently emerged as the strata of young coastal plains, are the records of recent cycles of erosion; while others were deposited in the early history of the earth, and in many instances have been crumpled into mountains, which afterwards were leveled to their bases and lowered beneath the sea to receive a cover of later sediments before they were again uplifted to form land.