[10] The "soul" here criticised is the equivalent of the Greek _psuche_. The word "material" covers other states of matter than that of the physical body.

[11] Upon reflection, I have subst.i.tuted "personality" for "individuality" as written in the first edition. The successive appearances upon one or many earths, or "descents into generation," of the _tanhaically_-coherent parts (_Skandhas_) of a certain being are a succession of personalities. In each birth the _personality_ differs from that of the previous, or next succeeding birth. Karma the _deus ex machina_, masks (or shall we say reflects?) itself, now in the personality of a sage, again as an artisan, and so on throughout the string of births. But though personalities ever shift, the one line of life along which they are strung like beads, runs unbroken, it is ever _that particular line_, never any other. It is therefore individual--an individual vital undulation--which is careering through the objective side of Nature, under the impulse of Karma and the creative direction of Tanha and persists through many cyclic changes. Professor Rhys-Davids calls that which pa.s.ses from personality to personality along the individual chain, "character" or "doing". Since "character" is not a mere metaphysical abstraction, but the sum of one's mental qualities and moral propensities, would it not help to dispel what Professor Rhys-Davids calls "the desperate expedient of a mystery" (_Buddhism_, p. 101), if we regarded the life-undulation as individuality and each of its series of natal manifestations as a separate personality? We _must_ have two words to distinguish between the concepts, and I find none so clear and expressive as the two I have chosen. The perfected individual, Buddhistically speaking, is a Buddha, I should say; for a Buddha is but the rare flower of humanity, without the least supernatural admixture.

And, as countless generations--"four_ asankhyyas_ and a hundred thousand cycles" (Fausboll and Rhys-David's _Buddhist Birth Stories_, No. 13)--are required to develop a man into a Buddha, and _the iron will to become one runs throughout all the successive births_, what shall we call that which thus wills and perseveres? Character, or individuality? An individuality, but partly manifested in any one birth, built up of fragments from all the births.

The denial of "Soul" by Buddha (see _Sanyutta Nikaya_, the _Sutta Pitaka_) points to the prevalent delusive belief in an independent personality; an ent.i.ty, which after one birth would go to a fixed place or state where, as a perfect ent.i.ty, it could eternally enjoy or suffer. And what he shows is that the "I am I" consciousness is, as regards permanency, logically impossible, since its elementary const.i.tuents constantly change and the "I" of one birth differs from the "I" of every other birth. But everything that I have found in Buddhism accords with the theory of a gradual evolution of the perfected man--_viz._, a Buddha--through numberless natal experiences.

And in the consciousness of that individual who, at the end of a given chain of births, attains Buddhahood, or who succeeds in attaining the fourth stage of Dhyana, or mystic self-development, in any of his births anterior to the final one, the scenes of all these serial births are perceptible. In the _Jatakat-thavannana_--so well translated by Professor Rhys-Davids--an expression continually recurs which, I think, rather supports such an idea, _viz._: "Then the Blessed One _made manifest an occurrence hidden by change of birth_," or "that which had been hidden by," etc. Early Buddhism then clearly held to a permanency of records in the Akasha, and the potential capacity of man to read the same when he has evolved to the stage of true individual enlightenment. At death, and in convulsions and trance, the _javana chitta_ is transferred to the object last created by the desires.

The will to live brings all thoughts into objectivity.

[12] The student may profitably consult Schopenhauer in this connection. Arthur Schopenhauer, a modern German philosopher of the most eminent ability, taught that "the Principle or Radical, of Nature, and of all her objects, the human body included, is, intrinsically what we ourselves are the most conscious of in our own body, _viz._, Will.

Intellect is a secondary capacity of the primary will, a function of the brain in which this will reflects itself as Nature and object and body, as in a mirror... Intellect is secondary, but may lead, in saints, to a complete renunciation of will, as far as it urges "life"

and is then extinguished in Nirvana (L. A. Sanders in _The Theosophist_ for May 1882, p. 213).

[13] Physiologically speaking, man's body is completely changed every seven years.

[14] This fundamental or basic principle may be designated in Pali, _Nidana_--chain of causation or, literally, "Origination of dependence". Twelve _Nidanas_ are specified, _viz._: _Avijja_--ignorance of the truth of natural religion; _Samkhara_--causal action, karma; _Vinnana_--consciousness of personality, the "I am I"; _Nama rupa_--name and form; _Salayatana_--six senses; _Pha.s.sa_--contact, _Vedana_--feeling, _Tanha_--desire for enjoyment; _Upadana_--clinging, _Bhava_--individualising existence; _Jati---birth, caste; _Jara, narana, sokaparidesa, dukkha, domana.s.sa, upayasa_--decay, death, grief, lamentation, despair.

PART III

THE SANGHA

256. Q. _How do Buddhist Bhikkhus differ from the priests of other religions?_

A. In other religions the priests claim to be intercessors between men and G.o.d, to help to obtain pardon of sins; the Buddhist Bhikkhus do not acknowledge or expect anything from a divine power.

257. Q. _But why then was it worth while to create this Order, or Brotherhood, or Society, apart from the whole body of the people, if they were not to do what other religious orders do?_

A. The object in view was to cause the most virtuous, intelligent, unselfish and spiritually-minded persons to withdraw from the social surroundings where their sensual and other selfish desires were naturally strengthened, devote their lives to the acquisition of the highest wisdom, and fit themselves to teach and guide others out of the pleasant path leading towards misery, into the harder path that leads to true happiness and final liberation.

258. Q. _Besides the Eight, what two additional observances are obligatory upon the Bhikkhus?_

A. I observe the precept to abstain from dancing, singing and unbecoming shows.

I observe the precept to abstain from receiving gold or silver.

The whole _Dasa_, or _Bhikkhu Sila_ or Ten Precepts, are binding on _all_ Bhikkhus and _Samaneras_, or novices, but optional with lay devotees.

The _Atthanga Sila_ are for those who aspire to higher stages beyond the heavenly regions,[1] aspirants after Nirvana.

259. Q. _Are there separate Rules and Precepts for the guidance and discipline of the Order?_

A. Yes: there are 250, but all come under the following four heads:

Princ.i.p.al Disciplinary Rules {_Patimokkha Samvara Sila_).

Observances for the repression of the senses (_Indriya Samvara Sila_).

Regulations for justly procuring and using food, diet, robes, etc., (_Paccaya Sannissita Sila_).

Directions for leading an unblemished life (_Ajivapari Suddha Sila_).

260. Q. _Enumerate some crimes and offences that Bhikkhus are particularly prohibited from committing?_

A. Real Bhikkhus abstain from:

Destroying the life of beings;

Stealing;

False exhibition of "occult" powers to deceive anybody;

s.e.xual intercourse;

Falsehood;

The use of intoxicating liquors, and eating at unseasonable times;

Dancing, singing, and unbecoming shows;

Using garlands, scents, perfumes, etc.;

Using high and broad beds, couches, or seats; receiving presents of gold, silver, raw grain and meat, women, and maidens, slaves, cattle, elephants, etc.;

Defaming;

Using harsh and reproachful language;

Idle talk;

Reading and hearing fabulous stories and tales;

Carrying messages to and from laymen;

Buying and selling;

Cheating, bribing, deception, and fraud;

Imprisoning, plundering, and threatening others;

The practice of certain specified magical arts and sciences, such as fortune-telling, astrological predictions, palmistry, and other sciences, that go under the name of magic. Any of these would r.e.t.a.r.d the progress of one who aimed at the attainment of Nirvana.

261. Q. _What are the duties of Bhikkhus to the laity?_

A. Generally, to set them an example of the highest morality; to teach and instruct them; to preach and expound the Law; to recite the _Paritta_ (comforting texts) to the sick, and publicly in times of public calamity, when requested to do so; and unceasingly to exhort the people to virtuous actions. They should dissuade them from vice; be compa.s.sionate and tender-hearted, and seek to promote the welfare of all beings.