[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 16. Katello, a Padleimiut Eskimo from the upper Kazan River, in a coat (_attigi_) and boots (_komik_) of caribou skin. Windy River, Oct. 6, 1947.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 17. Charles Schweder with the fresh, warble-infested hide of a Caribou buck (specimen No. 1033). Windy River, June 3, 1947.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 18. Hide of a Caribou doe, about four years old, with about 130 small warbles or warble scars (concentrated on the rump). Windy River, September 15, 1947.]

Only a small proportion of the hides of the locally killed Caribou are preserved. A hide that would fetch only a dollar at Reindeer Lake would not be worth transporting more than 250 miles from Nueltin Lake. Hearne long ago (1795: 84) remarked on the remoteness of the hunting grounds from the trading posts as a barrier to trade in the skins; and this condition prevails to a large extent to the present day. Thus only such hides as are required for domestic use are kept. Tanning, while done by the Eskimos of the upper Kazan, is not undertaken by the residents on Windy River. Here the task of drying the hides is left mainly to the children of the camp. Most of them are pegged out on the summit of a gravelly ridge, wooden pegs being driven with a rock through slits in the edges of the skin (fig. 6). Now and then one is nailed to the outer wall of a log cabin (fig. 18).

One of the main uses of the hides is for winter clothing. The Windy River residents have their garments made by Eskimo women of the upper Kazan, whose tanning process leaves the fur intact. Early autumn hides, with new, comparatively short fur, are the ones in demand. The season for securing such hides is said to extend to mid-September. At that season the larvae of the warble fly have not developed far enough to have injured the hide appreciably. The long winter fur is much less suitable for clothing. In moderately cold weather a single coat (_attigi_), with the fur inside (fig. 16), is worn by the Eskimos. This coat, when made for a man, extends very little farther downward at the rear than at the front; but a woman's coat is considerably longer at the rear. The bottom is generally provided with a fringe consisting of small strips of caribou skin, perhaps 4 inches long and 1/16 inch wide. In mid-winter another coat, with the fur outside (fig. 15), is slipped on over the other. Both are provided with hoods. Trousers, with the fur outside, are cut rather short at the bottom; some such material as rope is pa.s.sed around the waist, without belt loops, to hold the trousers up.

Boots (_komik_) of tanned caribou skin (fig. 16), reaching nearly to the knees, with the fur inside, make exceptionally warm footgear in winter.

An extra piece is sewed on the sole, with the fur outside, but the hairs soon wear off. The seams are sewed with sinew. Another sort of boot, for summer use, is made of untanned skin, without the fur, and is more or less waterproof. Mittens (_pahloot_) have the fur outside; the thumb piece, of a length suitable for a short Eskimo thumb, does not properly fit a white man.

In the autumn of 1947 the migrating Caribou did not reach the territory of the Chipewyans about the south end of Nueltin Lake till about November 1--by which time the fur had grown so long that it was not suitable for clothing. When I inquired of Charles Schweder how these natives managed under such circ.u.mstances, he replied that nowadays they use very little skin clothing--just manufactured clothing. Certainly the latter type was being worn by three men of this tribe that visited the Windy River post in late October. In this connection it is interesting to note that in November Charles brought to Windy River a bundle of fawn skins that he had secured from an Eskimo on the upper Kazan. Presently he traded them to a Cree halfbreed from the Putahow River, who was to have them made into a coat for himself. In years gone by the above-mentioned Chipewyans must have found some means of securing caribou skins for themselves in August or September; they could have accomplished this by moving to the northern part of Nueltin Lake, provided the animals had not reached the southern part at the proper season.

From Charles Schweder I learned that the Hudson's Bay Company acquires caribou skins (apparently tanned) from the Duck Lake Chipewyans at about a dollar apiece, puts them up in bales of perhaps 10 to 20 skins, and ships them by steamer from Churchill to Baffin Island or thereabouts, for use by the Eskimos. He had seen about 25 or 30 such bales being loaded on a steamer in September, 1947. This trade evidently results from the present scarcity of Caribou on Baffin Island (_cf._ Manning, 1943a: 47-50; Soper, 1944: 247-250; Banfield, 1949: 481). Moccasins of caribou skin, made by the Duck Lake Chipewyans, were on sale at Churchill.

The three Caribou-eater Chipewyans from the south end of Nueltin Lake brought mittens, gloves, and moccasins of caribou skin to trade at Windy River. Similar gloves were brought by a Cree halfbreed from the Putahow River.

At the Windy River post furred caribou skins served in upholstering the seat, back, and arms of a couple of home-made chairs. They were used also as mattresses or blankets, in the making of sleeping bags, and even as insulating material on the outside of the cabin (Harper, 1949: 226, 228, figs.). The Schweder boys also maintain tents of caribou skin at various points on their long trap-lines; they are much warmer than canvas tents, and require no outlay of cash. The skins are nailed on poles arranged in tepee form; the height of such a tent is about 10 feet, and the diameter 9 or 10 feet. There is a home-made stove inside, with the smoke-pipe projecting outside about halfway to the top of the tent.

The Eskimos of the Kazan River have large summer tents of caribou skin, and smaller ones of canvas. The former are the ones in which the drum dances are held. These Eskimos never make their winter houses wholly of snow, according to Charles Schweder, but use caribou skins for the roof.

In ill.u.s.tration of the primary importance of the Caribou to both primitive and civilized man in the Arctic and the sub-Arctic, the numerous cases of partial or complete starvation in the absence of Caribou may be cited. The chronicles of northern explorers are replete with them. A notable case is that of John Hornby and his two companions on the Thelon River in the winter of 1926-27 (h.o.a.re, 1930: 25; Christian, 1937). In the autumn of 1946 only a small fraction of the normal caribou migration pa.s.sed by the Eskimo camps on the upper Kazan River. These happy-go-lucky, utterly improvident people did not take steps to secure an alternative winter's supply of fish, and by the following spring eight out of the band of 27 persons had succ.u.mbed directly or indirectly to starvation. (It is suspected that several were accounted for by anthropophagy.) Women, children, and dogs were the victims; no adult male succ.u.mbed. The casualties would doubtless have been more numerous if Charles Schweder had not reported the plight of the band when he made a trip to Reindeer Lake in March. Thereupon the government shipped emergency rations by plane as far as Nueltin Lake, and Charles transported them from that point by sleigh to the Kazan.

Meanwhile he rescued two of the orphan children, took them to the Windy River post, and in a few more months formally adopted them.

_Ethnological material from caribou products_

In addition to the utilization of caribou products for the primary purposes of food, clothing, and shelter, as discussed in preceding pages, certain other uses of an ethnological nature may be mentioned here.

Charles Schweder spoke of the former Eskimo use of splint bones from the legs of Caribou as needles, after a hole had been drilled or burned through the larger end. They are about the same length as a large darning needle. These people commonly use the back sinew as thread or as wrapping on tools, drums, and the like. I saw a piece of back sinew being dried for future use at the Windy River post.

Either lard or caribou fat serves as fuel for an "Eskimo candle"; the wick is a bit of rag or moss. The heat of the flame melts the fat where it is spread out in some small receptacle like a can cover. When our other means of illumination gave out at the Windy River post, I worked or wrote notes for many hours by the light of one of these candles. It gives approximately as much illumination as an ordinary tallow candle.

One disadvantage of using caribou fat for this purpose is the considerable amount of smoke that it produces.

The Eskimos make odd use of an antler as a brake for a sleigh, to prevent the harnessed dogs from running after any Caribou they may sight; on other occasions it r.e.t.a.r.ds the sleigh in descending a hill.

Such an antler, that I found at the Windy River post, is notched near the base; a rope or thong, 2 or 3 feet in length, is fastened at one end to this notch, and at the other to the side of the sleigh. To apply the brake, the driver simply presses down the points of the antler into the snow or ice.

The drums used in the ceremonial dances of the Kazan River Eskimos are made of a piece of caribou skin stretched tightly over a circular frame of spruce and fastened in place with caribou sinew. They are about 3 feet in diameter.

In an Eskimo fish spear from the upper Kazan River an iron barb on one of the p.r.o.ngs is supported by a small piece of caribou antler and fastened with back sinew. The two large lateral p.r.o.ngs, of metal, are tied to the wooden shaft of the spear with braided sinew.

Two snow-knives have handles of antler, about 10 and 11 inches in length. One of the handles has been planed down, and is wrapped with sinew.

The handle of another implement, used in cleaning out grains of wood from a hole being drilled in wood, is also a piece of antler.

A woman's knife, or _ooloo_, has a section of antler for a handle.

Strands of beads, used either for an ear pendant or for ornaments at the peak of a hood, have a caribou incisor fastened at the tip. The opposite end of the pendant is provided with a thin strip of caribou hide for fastening to a perforated ear lobe.

The willow stems of pipes are wrapped with back sinew.

Antler and sinew went into the making (by Anoteelik) of a "ring and pin"

game.

_References on relations to Eskimos and Indians._--Isham, 1949 (1743): 152-154; Dobbs, 1744: 19; Hearne, 1795: 35, 78, 80-84, 96, 119, 195-197, 297, 316-319, 321-325; Franklin, 1823: 243-244; Lyon, 1824: 119, 123, 130, 144, 198, 229, 238, 241, 282, 311-317, 324, 327, 336; Parry, 1824: 289, 380, 403, 494-497, 505, 508, 512, 537; Richardson, "1825": 330, 331; Franklin and Richardson, 1828: 200, 275; Richardson, 1829: 242-244, 245-249; John Ross, 1835a: 243-244, 252, 352, 512, 537; J. C. Ross, in John Ross, 1835b: xvii; Richardson, in Back, 1836: 499; Simpson, 1843: 76, 208, 312, 347, 355; J.

McLean, 1932 (1849): 195, 359; Richardson, 1852: 290; J.

Anderson, 1856: 24, and 1857: 321; Armstrong, 1857: 149, 154, 155, 166, 194; M'Clintock, 1860?: 212; Richardson, 1861: 274; B. R. Ross, 1861: 439-440; Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 170; k.u.mlien, 1879: 19, 23-25, 36-37, 54; Caton, 1881: 366-371; Gilder, 1881: 11, 23, 25, 26, 28, 43, 50, 59, 61, 64, 67, 71, 137-146, 154, 245-255; Nourse, 1884: 220, 232; Schwatka, 1885: 59-86; Boas, 1888: 419, 429, 461-462, 501-503, 508-509, 522, 555-560; Bompas, 1888: 61, 100; Collinson, 1889: 277; MacFarlane, 1890: 32-34, 38; Pike, 1917 (1892): 51-56, 59-60, 82, 209; J. B. Tyrrell, 1892: 128-130; Dowling, 1893: 107; J. B.

Tyrrell, 1894: 445, 1895: 440-444, and 1897: 122, 126-127, 131-132, 151, 166-167; Russell, 1895: 49-51, and 1898: 91, 134, 168-172, 176, 178, 187-189, 227-229; Whitney, 1896: 161, 175, 176, 213, 237, 240, 242, 262; J. W. Tyrrell, 1908 (1898): 80-81, 123-141, 241; Jones, 1899: 342, 429; Hanbury, 1900: 64, 65; J. M. Bell, 1901a: 16, and 1901b: 252, 255, 258; Boas, 1901: 52, 54, 81, 102, 107, and 1907: 465, 493, 501; W. J. McLean, 1901: 5; Elliot, 1902: 276-279; J. W. Tyrrell, 1924 (1902): 28, 37; Hanbury, 1904: 41, 43, 67, 70, 72, 75, 82, 114-115, 120, 121, 123, 137, 143; MacFarlane, 1905: 680-683; Amundsen, 1908, +1+: 120, 201, 237, 326-329, and +2+: 110; Preble, 1908: 137; Seton, 1911: 259-262; Cameron, 1912: 127, 309; Wheeler, 1912: 199-200; R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 5, 6, 8, and 1913b: 502-505; Stefansson, 1913a: 105, and 1913b: 203, 215, 221, 281, 337-338, and 1914: 48, 56-59, 97, 137, 139-141, 147-148, 150, 296, 353; Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 97, 100; Wheeler, 1914: 52, 56, 58; Nelson, 1916: 460-461; Thompson, 1916: 19, 99; J. B. Tyrrell, in Thompson, 1916: 16; Buchanan, 1920: 113-151; R. M. Anderson, in Stefansson, 1921: 743, 750; Hewitt, 1921: 58, 59, 64-66; Stefansson, 1921: 401-402; Jenness, 1922: 47, 48, 61, 78-81, 97, 100-103, 124, 127-142, 148-151, 182-189, 244, 248, 249; Blanchet, 1925: 34, 1926a: 98, and 1926b: 47; Preble, 1926: 121; Craig, 1927: 22; Henderson, 1927: 40; Rasmussen, 1927: 5, 23, 59-60, 65, 67, 68, 73-76, 103-106, 145, 166-167, 245, 246; Anthony, 1928: 532; Kindle, 1928: 72-73; Birket-Smith, 1929 (1): 9, 47, 52-53, 56, 57, 86, 89, 90, 94, 96, 98, 101, 102, 104, 106-112, 133-144, 171, 186, 191, 196, 199-223, 232, 239-251, 262, 263, 268-271; Seton, 1929, +3+: 111-122, 133-134; Blanchet, 1930: 50-51, 53; Critch.e.l.l-Bullock, 1930: 193, and 1931: 32-33; Kitto, 1930: 87-88, 90; Mallet, 1930: 13, 32, 85, 87, 89, 90, 92, 95, 102, 116, 131-140; Jacobi, 1931: 156, 157, 159; Harper, 1932: 30, 31; Jenness, 1932: 47, 48, 51, 58, 59, 75, 406-408, 411, 412, 414, 415; Munn, 1932: 191-192, 210, 214, 255, 271, 278; Sutton and Hamilton, 1932: 80-83, 86-87; Weyer, 1932: 38, 39; Birket-Smith, 1933: 100; Ingstad, 1933: 118, 122, 135, 139, 162-163, 167, 186-187, 247, 253-254, 257-259; R. M. Anderson, 1934a: 81, and 1937: 103; G.o.dsell, 1934: 273-276, and 1937: 288; Hornby, 1934: 105; Birket-Smith, 1936: 90, 91, 110, 111, 115-116; Hamilton, 1939: 246, 352, 359; Clarke, 1940: 5-9, 84, 110, 112; G. M. Allen, 1942: 297; Manning, 1942: 29, 1943a: 47, 50, and 1943b: 103; Downes, 1943: 215, 227-228, 261-262; Soper, 1944: 248-250; Wright, 1944: 185, 187, 188, 193; Rand, 1948b: 149; Yule, 1948: 288; Banfield, 1949: 477, 478, 481, and 1951a: 1, 11, 14-15, 42-50; Harper, 1949: 226, 230, 231; Hoffman, 1949: 12; Polunin, 1949: 230; Scott, 1951: 127; Anonymous, 1952: 264.

_References on relations to civilized man._--Kennicott, in Anonymous, 1869: 166; Schwatka, 1885: 59-86; A. J. Stone, 1900: 57; Grant, 1903: 186; Cameron, 1912: 309; R. M. Anderson, 1913a: 5, 6; 1913b: 504, and 1938: 400; Stefansson, 1913b: 27; Hornaday, 1914, +2+: 100; Wheeler, 1914: 56; Hewitt, 1921: 11-12, 59; Critch.e.l.l-Bullock, 1931: 33; G.o.dsell, 1937: 288; G. M. Allen, 1942: 298-299; Manning, 1942: 28; [U.S.] War Department, 1944: 77; Harper, 1949: 239; Banfield, 1951a: 1, 14-15.

_Relations to Black Bears_

It is hardly to be expected that Black Bears (_Ursus america.n.u.s_ subsp.) commit any depredations on adult, able-bodied Caribou unless under very exceptional circ.u.mstances. Since they do not normally venture to an appreciable distance into the Barren Grounds, their contacts with Caribou are mainly in the forested zone. For an untold period in the past there has been a very interesting tripart.i.te relationship between Bears, Caribou, and Caribou-eater Chipewyans about the south end of Nueltin Lake. For information concerning it I am indebted to Charles Schweder. The Indians of that area have been in the habit of killing large numbers of Caribou, especially on the spring and fall migrations, and leaving many of the bodies, or parts of the bodies, out in the "bush." The Bears have become accustomed to taking advantage of the situation, especially, perhaps, in the matter of fattening up for hibernation. This probably resulted in a certain concentration of the animals thereabouts. But of late years the local native population has seriously declined by reason of fatal illness and removal to other parts. Consequently, as Charles Schweder expressed it, there are no longer enough people there to feed the Bears! Three of the Chipewyans reported in late October, 1947, that they had lost a good many of their Caribou to the Bears during that season.

This recent change in the food situation about the south end of Nueltin Lake has apparently resulted in, or at least coincided with, an influx of Bears in the Windy River area, where they were unknown until 1944.

During the next four years seven Bears were killed locally. The animals are said to have consumed about 70 Caribou bodies in the fall of 1944, and about 40 in the fall of 1947 within a few miles of the Windy River post; thus they became a somewhat serious factor in the human economy of the area. The Caribou is evidently the chief loser in this curious relationship, but even the Bear, which may be regarded as the chief beneficiary, suffers from man's retaliatory efforts.

_Relations to foxes_

The demand for Arctic Fox furs on the part of the fashionable women of the world sends the trapper on his winter rounds over the bleak and bitter Barren Grounds, where he depends upon his autumn kill of Caribou for sustenance for himself and his dogs as well as for fox bait. It is thus quite obvious where a large share of the responsibility for the dwindling numbers of the Caribou lies.

Both Arctic and Red Foxes (_Alopex lagopus innuitus_ and _Vulpes fulva_ subsp.) are among the scavengers that help to consume caribou bodies that are left unguarded in the wilds. According to Charles Schweder, foxes of both species seem to follow the Wolves, presumably in the hope of securing the leavings of their kills.

Charles also gave me an account of a remarkable sort of play between a Red Fox and a small buck Caribou. He had witnessed it in September, 1943, about 18 miles north of Windy River, from a distance of half a mile. The Fox would approach the Caribou closely; the latter would then walk up to the Fox, which would retreat, not allowing the Caribou to come close enough to touch it. Neither animal was afraid of the other.

They kept up this performance for about 5 minutes. The Fox then went among some bushes, where the Caribou tried to follow it. The larger animal was still there, feeding, when Charles pa.s.sed on out of sight. He regarded the whole performance as a matter of playfulness. His recital put me in mind at once of a slightly similar play between a Newfoundland Caribou and a Red Fox, as recorded by Millais (1907: 302-303).

Stefansson (1921: 623-624) describes a game of tag between an Arctic Fox and several yearlings of _Rangifer pearyi_ on Melville Island.

_References._--Blanchet, 1925: 34; Birket-Smith, 1929(1): 101; Critch.e.l.l-Bullock, 1930: 143; Munn, 1932: 278; Ingstad, 1933: 90, 157-159; Freuchen, 1935: 128; Banfield, 1951a: 36.

_Relations to Wolves_

Aside from man, the princ.i.p.al predatory enemy of the Barren Ground Caribou is undoubtedly the Wolf. A comparison of a distributional map of Caribou by Banfield (1949: 479, fig. 1) with a distributional map of Wolves by Goldman (1944: 414, fig. 14) indicates that the latter species is a considerably more plastic animal. No less than six subspecies of Wolves seem to occur in parts of the currently recognized range of a single subspecies of Caribou (_Rangifer arcticus arcticus_), as follows: _Canis lupus arctos_, Prince of Wales and Somerset islands; _Canis lupus manningi_, Baffin Island; _Canis lupus bernardi_, Victoria Island; _Canis lupus hudsonicus_, Keewatin, eastern Mackenzie, northern Manitoba, and northeastern Saskatchewan; _Canis lupus mackenzii_, northern Mackenzie; _Canis lupus occidentalis_, southern Mackenzie and northern Alberta and Saskatchewan.

The Keewatin Tundra Wolf (_C. l. hudsonicus_) is presumably the only one that concerns us here. However, its extension into the forested zone of northern Manitoba and northeastern Saskatchewan, as indicated on Goldman's map, is still problematical. Goldman's text (1944: 428-429) is quite indefinite on this point. There are such distinct differences between the general fauna of the Arctic Zone and that of the Hudsonian Zone that the Wolf of the latter zone may well prove to be differentiable from _hudsonicus_, whose type locality is at Schultz Lake in west central Keewatin. It is an interesting question whether any Wolves of the Barren Grounds follow the Caribou southward into the timbered country in the fall; likewise, whether any individual Wolves of the latter region accompany the Caribou on their spring migration out into the Barrens. Little light on the subject seems available at present. There is no doubt, however, that a good many Wolves remain during the winter on parts of the Barren Grounds that have been deserted by the Caribou at that season. Furthermore, at the time of the spring migration, mature Wolves of the forest zone would be restricted to their home territory by the necessity of caring for their young ones.

A Wolf is by no means able to capture a Caribou at will. During the season of open water the latter may effect a ready escape by plunging into the nearest river or lake and crossing to the other side. There is reason to believe that islands provide a good sanctuary during the summer (Seton, 1929, +3+: 108-109; Gavin, 1945: 228). In the winter the Caribou must depend primarily on its fleetness of foot. Even the fawns are reputed to be able to outdistance Wolves in a chase that is not too prolonged. An adult, if brought to bay after a long chase, is probably able to stand off a single Wolf indefinitely. Its powerful hoofs are its princ.i.p.al means of defense. Even if the antlers are brought into play, they are effective only during the limited period when they are fullgrown, hard, and free of velvet. When two or more Wolves manage to bring a Caribou to bay, the outcome is probably almost invariably in their favor. Charles Schweder has never known a Caribou to kill one of these predators in defending itself. In several cases reported by Fred Schweder, Jr., the last stand was made on the ice of lakes. The Caribou itself may choose such a place, as if aware that it may be more sure-footed on the ice than its enemy.

After listening to wolf tales by residents of the frontier settlements rather than by real men of the "bush," one might almost expect to see a couple of these bloodthirsty animals harrying the rear of every band of Caribou and keeping up a relentless pursuit. However, during a sojourn of six months on one of the best Caribou ranges in Keewatin, where trapping has very little effect on Wolves, I saw just one of these animals alive, heard the howling on several occasions, and noted a single Caribou that had probably been killed by them. It is far from a common experience for the resident trappers to witness actual pursuit by Wolves or even to find their kills. The following instances, related by Fred Schweder, Jr., comprised his only direct observations on Wolves in pursuit of Caribou up to and including 1947, when he was eighteen years old.

During the northward migration in May, 1945, a silent black Wolf pursued a band of 100 Caribou over the ice of Windy Bay. At one time it came within 100 feet, but thereafter they forged ahead. After half a mile the band split up, and the Wolf desisted. In October, 1946, Fred noticed a Caribou fighting off two Wolves on the ice of Nueltin Lake near its outlet. It used both horns and hoofs against its attackers. While one Wolf was in front, the other would try to get in the rear of the Caribou and hamstring it. This went on for two hours until darkness hid the scene. The next morning the Caribou was dead and half eaten. On October 16, 1947, a white Wolf was seen in pursuit of four fast-moving Caribou near Simons' Lake. It was about half a mile in their rear, and presently halted, probably by reason of catching sight of Fred.

November 7, 1947, was a blizzardy day; the air was full of drifting snow. Under these conditions a gray Wolf chased a buck and a doe right into the dooryard of one of Fred's trapping camps 10 miles north of Windy River. It was only about 30 feet behind them. When the buck broke through the ice of a little creek, the Wolf went right past it in pursuit of the doe. The latter nearly ran into Fred's toboggan, and he shot it at a distance of 20 feet. The Wolf came within 40 feet, but by the time it was recognized as not just another Caribou, it was 100 feet away. Fred then shot but merely wounded it, the sight being off his rifle. Meanwhile the buck escaped, but 3 miles away Fred met with it again and secured it. He recognized it as the same animal because at both encounters it was limping from a previous wound and was hornless as well.

In late November Fred found two fullgrown bucks and a doe on the ice of Windy Lake, where they had been killed by Wolves. The bucks were antlered and had probably met their end several weeks previously. Yet their flesh was so musky and unpalatable, in consequence of the rutting season, that it had not been devoured. A long trail of blood and hair led to the spot where the doe had fallen, apparently a couple of weeks previously; it was still only half eaten.