When once the Ski runner has begun to appreciate the fun and interest of running by a map, he will never leave it behind, and he will be able to enjoy all sorts of runs he would never know of if he were content with the sheep habit of "following tracks."

The greatest fun of Ski-ing is in finding one's own way, and this one can never hope to do without a map.

The following scale of comparative heights in metres and feet may be of use in estimating the heights of points which the Ski runner wishes to reach:

10 metres equal 33 feet (approximately).

50 " " 164 "

100 " " 328 "

250 " " 820 "

500 " " 1,640 "

1,000 " " 3,281 "

2,000 " " 6,562 "

3,000 " " 9,843 "

A compa.s.s is, of course, useful when running by map, but as precipices are apt to get in the way when running straight for any given point, a compa.s.s cannot be trusted alone. In the case of fog, it is very difficult to avoid difficulties, and points on the map can only be identified by the use of an aneroid, as well as a compa.s.s. Set the aneroid at the point you start from and check your heights by this as you climb or descend, referring constantly to the map to ensure that you are running on the right line. It is wise to practise this on clear days in order to get accustomed to running by map, compa.s.s and aneroid. As the weather also affects the aneroid, it should be constantly reset at known levels.

All this may sound very confusing, and most beginners will probably prefer to take a Guide who knows his country well rather than trust to elementary map-reading knowledge in unknown country. Most runners who go on tour will find running much more interesting, however, if instead of following a Guide blindly they also watch the map or get a knowledge of what is good or bad country to run over. There are sometimes cases also when the party must necessarily divide, and an amateur may have to take the lead over unknown country.

AVALANCHES

Much has been written on this subject. Mr. Arnold Lunn, in "The Alps," tells some extraordinary stories about these monsters of the mountains. My father, John Addington Symonds, in "Our Life in the Swiss Highlands," also describes them.

There was a very interesting article by Monsieur F. Krahnstoever in the "Swiss Ski Club Year-Book for 1923" on the subject of avalanches in relation to Ski-ing. They are an everlasting nightmare to Ski runners in high places, and beginners should at once take care to learn all they can of snow-craft in order, in so far as possible, to realize what is safe and what is dangerous.

The steepness of slopes and the condition of snow, as well as the direction of wind, are all factors affecting avalanches.

Any slope whose gradient is more than 15 may be dangerous under certain conditions, but it may be generally accepted that most long slopes under 25 are comparatively safe so long as they have not much steeper slopes immediately above or below them.

New snow is always apt to slip before it has had time to settle down.

Snow blown by wind into a cornice or overhanging lip at the top of a slope or on a cliff may topple down and start an avalanche.

Wet snow, after rain, or a warm Fohn wind, becomes heavy and begins to slide.

A very dangerous condition is new soft snow lying on a slope covered with old hard snow.

Trees or rocks sticking up through the snow make such slopes safer, as they tend to prevent the snow from beginning to slip. This is why the Forestry Laws of Switzerland are so strict. In some districts the owner of a forest may not cut a tree unless it has been approved by the Government forester. This is to ensure that the forests are maintained as a protection for the villages in the valleys below.

Beginners should never go on a tour without first ascertaining that the route they propose to follow is a safe one. And if there is the slightest doubt, owing to weather conditions, they should put it off for a day or two. Some runs are perfectly safe when the snow has settled and a sharp frost has bound it, but they may become dangerous again when a thaw sets in, a Fohn wind is blowing, or rain has fallen.

The Ski runner himself may start an avalanche on a slope where the snow would lie safely if he did not pa.s.s along it. The cutting of his track, breaking the continuity of the snow, may set it going either above or below him and he will be carried away with it.

Wherever there seems to be the slightest risk of avalanche the party should separate and proceed in single file at about 20-yard intervals.

Then if a runner is carried away, the others will be able to go to his a.s.sistance. In some cases, however, even this is not sufficient protection as the whole slope may go at once. In old days before the railways had tunnelled through the pa.s.ses we were driving over the Fluela above Davos on our way to Italy in March. We were in the post consisting of some 20 one-horse sledges and had just left the Hospiz when we met the up-coming post, also consisting of a number of one-horse sledges. It took some time to pa.s.s, as the track was narrow and the horses floundered in the deep snow when pa.s.sing each other.

After we had got by and were continuing on our way down to Sus, we turned along an outstanding b.u.t.tress of cliff and saw that some two miles of steep slope ahead had avalanched. The whole surface of the snow had slipped to the bottom of the valley and if either of the diligences had been on this slope when it happened, horses, sledges and all would have been carried away.

This experience fixed avalanche danger very firmly in my mind, and having also seen several large avalanches falling, as well as the immense amount of damage done to forests and chalets by these insuperable monsters, I have never wished to risk getting into a large one myself.

Even a small avalanche is very overwhelming and a beginner who has felt its effects soon realizes what it may mean. Choose a _very_ short steep slope on a day when the snow is slipping and try to get it going. Once it moves and entangles your legs and Skis, you will feel the extraordinary helplessness which results. This was one of our games when I was a child. Without Skis it is possible to float on top of a baby avalanche and to enjoy it, but with Skis on, the feet soon become entangled and helplessness results.

The first thing to do when an avalanche starts and no escape is possible is to get the Ski bindings undone and the feet free. Then "swim" with arms and legs and try to keep on top. If buried, keep one arm over nose and mouth so as to keep air s.p.a.ce and push the other arm up, pointing the Ski stick through to the open so that it may show your whereabouts. This is easy to describe, but probably not so easy to carry out if the occasion arises.

One of the first books on Ski-running advises people to carry some 60 metres of red tape and to let this trail behind them when crossing dangerous ground. Then, if overwhelmed by an avalanche, the red thread can be picked up by the search party and the victim may quickly be dug out. I have never met anyone who has carried out this suggestion and do not want the extra weight of red tape in my Rucksack, but it makes one think and realize how much other experienced runners have thought also.

The following precautions would seem to me to be better:

Never ski along, or above, or below a dangerous-looking slope under doubtful conditions.

Never go for a tour without making sure beforehand that the route you propose to follow is a safe one.

Always carry out any instructions your Guide or the experienced leader of your party may give. If you have any sudden doubt about the safety of the slope you are on, make quickly for the nearest rocks sticking up.

If there are trees near get among them as quickly and quietly as you can.

If the snow begins to slip and you see no chance of Ski-ing quickly away from the dangerous place, get your Skis off. This is where toe bindings may be safer than heel bindings as they come off quicker.

Never follow a track across a slope, about which you are doubtful, thinking hopefully that the runner who cut it knew more than yourself.

Never cut a track across a dangerous place at your own risk if there is the slightest chance of misleading another runner into danger later.

Remember that though you yourself may be on a safe slope, the slope above or below you may be so steep that the snow may slip off by itself and your slope may be involved. This applies equally to running along the bottom of a valley. The slopes on either side may be dangerous, and if the snow slips you will be buried.

There are so many perfectly safe runs that it is folly to risk being killed by an avalanche, when it can easily be avoided by a little forethought and common sense.

Even if you do not mind the risk yourself, think not only of your people waiting below, but also of the people who have to come and look for your body. There have been several cases where the search party have been overwhelmed by a second avalanche while digging for people carried away by the first.

January and March are probably the most dangerous months from the avalanche point of view. In January the fresh snow is apt to slide before it has settled. A few days after a new snowfall, most of the avalanches will have come down and the ordinary runs will be safe again, but every snowfall entails the same risk. There are some slopes where the snow will never stay in February, but unless a Fohn wind or rain make the snow heavy, most slopes are pretty safe below a gradient of 25.

In March when the thaw begins more avalanches will fall. These usually come down well-known tracks and can easily be avoided for this reason.

This chapter may appear to be somewhat intimidating, but it is better to be safe than sorry. Very few experienced Ski runners get into avalanches and if ordinary precautions are taken and the advice of experts followed beginners need have no fear.

The Ski-ing maps usually show the more dangerous places, but every runner should keep his own eyes open and learn all he can of snow-craft in order to be able to explore new country as he becomes proficient.

ACCIDENTS

Some people will think that I lay too much stress on the dangers of Ski-ing. Considering the thousands of people who ski every Winter and the extraordinarily small number of accidents, I admit that I have exaggerated the dangers. But I do so quite deliberately because it is only by realizing risks that they can be avoided, and my experience proves to me that the average town-bred man and woman, boy and girl have very little appreciation of life lived up against Nature. They set out so lightheartedly and often so fool-hardily on an expedition, without telling anyone where they propose to go, or when they expect to be home, and without having provided themselves with the extra equipment which may prove to be very necessary before the day is finished.

While writing this book I have constantly had in mind Ski-ing centres above 5,000 feet, whence tours are made among the glaciers and at high levels where the cold may be a danger during the months of January and February. Much of what I have said of the necessity of carrying spare clothing in good quant.i.ty does not apply so much to places below 5,000 feet unless high tours are undertaken. But wherever people ski there is a possibility of accidents due to falls, and though these are seldom serious, they need attention.

When someone is really lamed by knee or ankle, Ski-ing becomes very difficult, except to the expert, who can ski mainly on one foot, and walking through the deep snow, sinking at every step, is an agony, so that some form of stretcher becomes necessary.