The soil of that part of Calabria is composed chiefly, like the southern part of Sicily, of calcareo-argillaceous strata of great thickness, containing marine sh.e.l.ls. This clay is sometimes a.s.sociated with beds of sand and limestone. For the most part these formations resemble in appearance and consistency the Subapennine marls, with their accompanying sands and sandstones; and the whole group bears considerable resemblance, in the yielding nature of its materials, to most of our tertiary deposits in France and England. Chronologically considered, however, the Calabrian formations are comparatively of modern date, often abounding in fossil sh.e.l.ls referable to species now living in the Mediterranean.

We learn from Vivencio, that on the 20th and 26th of March, 1783, earthquakes occurred in the islands of Zante, Cephalonia, and St. Maura; and in the last-mentioned island several public edifices and private houses were overthrown, and many people destroyed.

If the city of Oppido, in Calabria Ultra, be taken as a centre, and round that centre a circle be described, with a radius of twenty-two miles, this s.p.a.ce will comprehend the surface of the country which suffered the greatest alteration, and where all the towns and villages were destroyed. The first shock, of February 5th, 1783, threw down, in two minutes, the greater part of the houses in all the cities, towns, and villages, from the western flanks of the Apennines in Calabria Ultra to Messina in Sicily, and convulsed the whole surface of the country.

Another occurred on the 28th of March, with almost equal violence. The granitic chain which pa.s.ses through Calabria from north to south, and attains the height of many thousand feet, was shaken but slightly by the first shock, but more rudely by some which followed.

Some writers have a.s.serted that the wave-like movements which were propagated through the recent strata, from west to east, became very violent when they reached the point of junction with the granite, as if a reaction was produced where the undulatory movement of the soft strata was suddenly arrested by the more solid rocks. But the statement of Dolomieu on this subject is most interesting, and perhaps, in a geological point of view, the most important of all the observations which are recorded.[666] The Apennines, he says, which consist in great part of hard and solid granite, with some micaceous and argillaceous schists, form bare mountains with steep sides, and exhibit marks of great degradation. At their base newer strata are seen of sand and clay, mingled with sh.e.l.ls; a marine deposit containing such ingredients as would result from the decomposition of granite. The surface of this newer (_tertiary_) formation const.i.tutes what is called the plain of Calabria--a platform which is flat and level, except where intersected by narrow valleys or ravines, which rivers and torrents have excavated sometimes to the depth of six hundred feet. The sides of these ravines are almost perpendicular; for the superior stratum, being bound together by the roots of trees, prevents the formation of a sloping bank. The usual effect of the earthquake, he continues, was to disconnect all those ma.s.ses which either had not sufficient bases for their bulk, or which was supported only by lateral adherence. Hence it follows that throughout almost the whole length of the chain, the soil which adhered to the granite at the base of the mountains Caulone, Esope, Sagra, and Aspramonte, slid over the solid and steeply inclined nucleus, and descended somewhat lower, leaving almost uninterruptedly from St. George to beyond St. Christina, a distance of from nine to ten miles, a chasm between the solid granitic nucleus and the sandy soil. Many lands slipping thus were carried to a considerable distance from their former position, so as entirely to cover others; and disputes arose as to whom the property which had thus shifted its place should belong.

From this account of Dolomieu we might antic.i.p.ate, as the result of a continuance of such earthquakes, first, a longitudinal valley following the line of junction of the older and newer rocks; secondly, greater disturbance in the newer strata near the point of contact than at a greater distance from the mountains; phenomena very common in other parts of Italy at the junction of the Apennine and Subapennine formations.

Mr. Mallet, in his valuable essay on the Dynamics of Earthquakes,[667]

offers the following explanation of the fact to which Dolomieu has called attention. When a wave of elastic compression, of which he considers the earth-wave to consist, pa.s.ses abruptly from a body having an extremely low elasticity, such as clay and gravel, into another like granite, whose elasticity is remarkably high, it changes not only its velocity but in part also its course, a portion being reflected and a portion refracted. The wave being thus sent back again produces a shock in the opposite direction, doing great damage to buildings on the surface by thus returning upon itself. At the same time, the shocks are at once eased when they get into the more elastic materials of the granitic mountains.

The surface of the country during the Calabrian earthquakes often heaved like the billows of a swelling sea, which produced a swimming in the head, like sea-sickness. It is particularly stated, in almost all the accounts, that just before each shock the clouds appeared motionless; and, although no explanation is offered of this phenomenon, it is obviously the same as that observed in a ship at sea when it pitches violently. The clouds seem arrested in their career as often as the vessel rises in a direction contrary to their course; so that the Calabrians must have experienced precisely the same motion on the land.

Trees, supported by their trunks, sometimes bent during the shocks to the earth, and touched it with their tops. This is mentioned as a well-known fact by Dolomieu; and he a.s.sures us that he was always on his guard against the spirit of exaggeration in which the vulgar are ever ready to indulge when relating these wonderful occurrences.

It is impossible to suppose that these waves, which are described in Italy and other regions of earthquakes as pa.s.sing along the solid surface of the earth in a given direction like a billow on the sea, have any strict a.n.a.logy with the undulations of a fluid. They are doubtless the effects of vibrations, radiating from some deep-seated point, each of which on reaching the surface lifts up the ground, and then allows it again to subside. As the distance between the source of the subterranean movement and the surface must vary according to the outline of the country, so the vibratory jar will reach different points in succession.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 75.

Shifts in the stones of two obelisks in the Convent of St Bruno.]

The Academicians relate that in some of the cities of Calabria effects were produced seeming to indicate a whirling or vorticose movement.

Thus, for example, two obelisks (fig. 75) placed at the extremities of a magnificent facade in the convent of S. Bruno, in a small town called Stefano del Bosco, were observed to have undergone a movement of a singular kind. The shock which agitated the building is described as having been horizontal and vorticose. The pedestal of each obelisk remained in its original place; but the separate stones above were turned partially round, and removed sometimes nine inches from their position without falling.

It has been suggested by Mr. Darwin that this kind of displacement may be due to a vibratory rather than a whirling motion;[668] and more lately Mr. Mallet, in the paper already cited, has offered a very ingenious solution of the problem. He refers the twisting simply to an elastic wave, which has moved the pedestal forwards and back again, by an alternate horizontal motion within narrow limits, and he has succeeded in showing that a rectilinear movement in the ground may have sufficed to cause an inc.u.mbent body to turn partially round upon its bed, provided a certain relation exist between the position of the centre of gravity of the body and its centre of adherence.[669]

I shall now consider, in the first place, that cla.s.s of physical changes produced by the earthquake which are connected with alterations in the relative level of the different parts of the land; and afterwards describe those which are more immediately connected with the derangement of the regular drainage of the country, and where the force of running water co-operated with that of the earthquake.

_Difficulty of ascertaining changes of level._--In regard to alterations of relative level, none of the accounts establish that they were on a considerable scale; but it must always be remembered that, in proportion to the area moved is the difficulty of proving that the general level has undergone any change, unless the sea-coast happens to have partic.i.p.ated in the princ.i.p.al movement. Even then it is often impossible to determine whether an elevation or depression even of several feet has occurred, because there is nothing to attract notice in a band of shingle and sand of unequal breadth above the level of the sea running parallel to a coast; such bands generally marking the point reached by the waves during spring tides, or the most violent tempests. The scientific investigator has not sufficient topographical knowledge to discover whether the extent of beach has diminished or increased; and he who has the necessary local information, scarcely ever feels any interest in ascertaining the amount of the rise or fall of the ground.

Add to this the great difficulty of making correct observations, in consequence of the enormous waves which roll in upon a coast during an earthquake, and efface every landmark near the sh.o.r.e.

_Subsidence of the quay at Messina._--It is evidently in seaports alone that we can look for very accurate indications of slight changes of level; and when we find them, we may presume that they would not be rare at other points, if equal facilities of comparing relative alt.i.tudes were afforded. Grimaldi states (and his account is confirmed by Hamilton and others), that at Messina, in Sicily, the sh.o.r.e was rent; and the soil along the port, which before the shock was perfectly level, was found afterwards to be inclined towards the sea,--the sea itself near the "Banchina" becoming deeper, and its bottom in several places disordered. The quay also sunk down about fourteen inches below the level of the sea, and the houses in its vicinity were much fissured.

(_Phil. Trans._ 1783.)

Among various proofs of partial elevation and depression in the interior, the Academicians mention, in their Survey, that the ground was sometimes on the same level on both sides of new ravines and fissures, but sometimes there had been a considerable shifting, either by the upheaving of one side, or the subsidence of the other. Thus, on the sides of long rents in the territory of Soriano, the stratified ma.s.ses had altered their relative position to the extent of from eight to fourteen palms (six to ten and a half feet).

_Polistena._--Similar shifts in the strata are alluded to in the territory of Polistena, where there appeared innumerable fissures in the earth. One of these was of great length and depth; and in parts the level of the corresponding sides was greatly changed. (See fig. 76.)

_Terranuova._--In the town of Terranuova some houses were seen uplifted above the common level, and others adjoining sunk down into the earth.

In several streets the soil appeared thrust up, and ab.u.t.ted against the walls of houses: a large circular tower of solid masonry, part of which had withstood the general destruction, was divided by a vertical rent, and one side was upraised, and the foundations heaved out of the ground.

It was compared by the Academicians to a great tooth half extracted from the alveolus, with the upper part of the fangs exposed. (See fig.

77.)

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 76.

Deep fissure, near Polistena, caused by the earthquake of 1783.]

Along the line of this shift, or "fault," as it would be termed technically by miners, the walls were found to adhere firmly to each other, and to fit so well, that the only signs of their having been disunited was the want of correspondence in the courses of stone on either side of the rent.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 77.

Shift or "fault" in the Round Tower of Terranuova in Calabria, occasioned by the earthquake of 1783.]

Dolomieu saw a stone well in the convent of the Augustins at Terranuova, which had the appearance of having been driven out of the earth. It resembled a small tower eight or nine feet in height, and a little inclined. This effect, he says, was produced by the consolidation and consequent sinking of the sandy soil in which the well was dug.

In some walls which had been thrown down, or violently shaken, in Monteleone, the separate stones were parted from the mortar, so as to leave an exact mould where they had rested; whereas in other cases the mortar was ground to dust between the stones.

It appears that the wave-like motions often produced effects of the most capricious kind. Thus, in some streets of Monteleone, every house was thrown down but one; in others, all but two; and the buildings which were spared were often scarcely in the least degree injured. In many cities of Calabria, all the most solid buildings were thrown down, while those which were slightly built escaped; but at Rosarno, as also at Messina in Sicily, it was precisely the reverse, the ma.s.sive edifices being the only ones that stood.

_Fissures._--It appears evident that a great part of the rending and fissuring of the ground was the effect of a violent motion from below upwards; and in a mult.i.tude of cases where the rents and chasms opened and closed alternately, we must suppose that the earth was by turns heaved up, and then let fall again.[670] We may conceive the same effect to be produced on a small scale, if, by some mechanical force, a pavement composed of large flags of stone should be raised up, and then allowed to fall suddenly, so as to resume its original position. If any small pebbles happened to be lying on the line of contact of two flags, they would fall into the opening when the pavement rose, and be swallowed up, so that no trace of them would appear after the subsidence of the stones. In the same manner, when the earth was upheaved, large houses, trees, cattle, and men were engulfed in an instant in chasms and fissures; and when the ground sank down again, the earth closed upon them, so that no vestige of them was discoverable on the surface. In many instances, individuals were swallowed up by one shock, and then thrown out again alive, together with large jets of water, by the shock which immediately succeeded.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 78.

Fissures near Jerocarne, in Calabria, caused by the earthquake of 1783.]

At Jerocarne, a country which, according to the Academicians, was _lacerated_ in a most extraordinary manner, the fissures ran in every direction, "like cracks on a broken pane of gla.s.s" (see fig. 78); and as a great portion of them remained open after the shocks, it is very possible that this country was permanently upraised. It was usual, as we learn from Dolomieu, for the chasms and fissures throughout Calabria, to ran parallel to the course of some pre-existing gorges in their neighborhood.

_Houses engulfed._--In the vicinity of Oppido, the central point from which the earthquake diffused its violent movements, many houses were swallowed up by the yawning earth, which closed immediately over them.

In the adjacent district, also, of Cannamaria four farm-houses, several oil-stores, and some s.p.a.cious dwelling-houses were so completely engulfed in one chasm, that not a vestige of them was afterwards discernible. The same phenomena occurred at Terranuova, S. Christina, and Sinopoli. The Academicians state particularly, that when deep abysses had opened in the argillaceous strata of Terranuova, and houses had sunk into them, the sides of the chasms closed with such violence, that, on excavating afterwards to recover articles of value, the workmen found the contents and detached parts of the buildings jammed together so as to become one compact ma.s.s. It is unnecessary to acc.u.mulate examples of similar occurrences; but so many are well authenticated during this earthquake in Calabria, that we may, without hesitation, yield a.s.sent to the accounts of catastrophes of the same kind repeated again and again in history, where whole towns are declared to have been engulfed, and nothing but a pool of water or tract of sand left in their place.

_Chasm formed near Oppido._--On the sloping side of a hill near Oppido a great chasm opened; and, although a large quant.i.ty of soil was precipitated into the abyss, together with a considerable number of olive-trees and part of a vineyard, a great gulf remained after the shock, in the form of an amphitheatre, 500 feet long and 200 feet deep.

(See fig. 79.)

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 79.

Chasm formed by the earthquake of 1783, near Oppido in Calabria.]

_Dimensions of new fissures and chasms._--According to Grimaldi, many fissures and chasms, formed by the first shock of February 5th, were greatly widened, lengthened, and deepened by the violent convulsions of March 28th. In the territory of San Fili this observer found a new ravine, half a mile in length, two feet and a half broad, and twenty-five feet deep; and another of similar dimensions in the territory of Rosarno. A ravine _nearly a mile long_, 105 feet broad and thirty feet deep, opened in the district of Plaisano, where, also, two gulfs were caused--one in a place called Cerzulle, three-quarters of a mile long, 150 feet broad, and above _one hundred feet deep_; and another at La Fortuna, nearly a quarter of a mile long, above thirty feet in breadth, and no less than 225 feet deep.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 80.

Chasm in the hill of St. Angelo, near Soriano, in Calabria, caused by the earthquake of 1783.]

In the district of Fosolano three gulfs opened: one of these measured 300 feet square, and above thirty feet deep; another was nearly half a mile long, fifteen feet broad, and above thirty-feet deep; the third was 750 feet square. Lastly, a calcareous mountain, called Zefirio, at the southern extremity of the Italian peninsula, was cleft in two for the length of nearly half a mile, and an irregular breadth of many feet.

Some of these chasms were in the form of a crescent. The annexed cut (fig. 80) represents one by no means remarkable for its dimensions, which remained open by the side of a small pa.s.s over the hill of St.

Angelo, near Soriano. The small river Mesima is seen in the foreground.

_Formation of circular hollows and new lakes._--In the report of the Academy, we find that some plains were covered with circular hollows, for the most part about the size of carriage-wheels, but often somewhat larger or smaller. When filled with water to within a foot or two of the surface, they appeared like wells; but, in general, they were filled with dry sand, sometimes with a concave surface, and at other times convex. (See fig. 81.) On digging down, they found them to be funnel-shaped, and the moist loose sand in the centre marked the tube up which the water spouted. The annexed cut (fig. 82) represents a section of one of these inverted cones when the water had disappeared, and nothing but dry micaceous sand remained.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 81.

Circular hollows in the plain of Rosarno, formed by the earthquake of 1783.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 82.

Section of one of the circular hollows formed in the plain of Rosarno.]