Geology, it was affirmed, could never rise to the rank of an exact science,--the greater number of phenomena must forever remain inexplicable, or only be partially elucidated by ingenious conjectures.

Even the mystery which invested the subject was said to const.i.tute one of its princ.i.p.al charms, affording, as it did, full scope to the fancy to indulge in a boundless field of speculation.

The course directly opposed to this method of philosophizing consists in an earnest and patient inquiry, how far geological appearances are reconcilable with the effect of changes now in progress, or which may be in progress in regions inaccessible to us, and of which the reality is attested by volcanoes and subterranean movements. It also endeavors to estimate the aggregate result of ordinary operations multiplied by time, and cherishes a sanguine hope that the resources to be derived from observation and experiment, or from the study of nature such as she now is, are very far from-being exhausted. For this reason all theories are rejected which involve the a.s.sumption of sudden and violent catastrophes and revolutions of the whole earth, and its inhabitants,--theories which are restrained by no reference to existing a.n.a.logies, and in which a desire is manifested to cut, rather than patiently to untie, the Gordian knot.

We have now, at least, the advantage of knowing, from experience, that an opposite method has always put geologists on the road that leads to truth,--suggesting views which, although imperfect at first, have been found capable of improvement, until at last adopted by universal consent; while the method of speculating on a former distinct state of things and causes, has led invariably to a mult.i.tude of contradictory systems, which have been overthrown one after the other,--have been found incapable of modification,--and which have often required to be precisely reversed.

The remainder of this work will be devoted to an investigation of the changes now going on in the crust of the earth and its inhabitants. The importance which the student will attach to such researches will mainly depend in the degree of confidence which he feels in the principles above expounded. If he firmly believes in the resemblance or ident.i.ty of the ancient and present system of terrestrial changes, he will regard every fact collected respecting the causes in diurnal action as affording him a key to the interpretation of some mystery in the past.

Events which have occurred at the most distant periods in the animate and inanimate world, will be acknowledged to throw light on each other, and the deficiency of our information respecting some of the most obscure parts of the present creation will be removed. For as, by studying the external configuration of the existing land and its inhabitants, we may restore in imagination the appearance of the ancient continents which have pa.s.sed away, so may we obtain from the deposits of ancient seas and lakes an insight into the nature of the subaqueous processes now in operation, and of many forms of organic life, which, though now existing, are veiled from sight. Rocks, also, produced by subterranean fire in former ages, at great depths in the bowels of the earth, present us, when upraised by gradual movements, and exposed to the light of heaven, with an image of those changes which the deep-seated volcano may now occasion in the nether regions. Thus, although we are mere sojourners on the surface of the planet, chained to a mere point in s.p.a.ce, enduring but for a moment of time, the human mind is not only enabled to number worlds beyond the una.s.sisted ken of mortal eye, but to trace the events of indefinite ages before the creation of our race, and is not even withheld from penetrating into the dark secrets of the ocean, or the interior of the solid globe; free, like the spirit which the poet described as animating the universe,

----ire per omnes Terrasque, tractusque maris, coelumque profundum.

BOOK II.

CHANGES IN THE INORGANIC WORLD.

AQUEOUS CAUSES.

CHAPTER XIV.

Division of the subject into changes of the organic and inorganic world--Inorganic causes of change divided into aqueous and igneous--Aqueous causes first considered--Fall of rain--Recent rain-prints in mud--Destroying and transporting power of running water--Newly formed valleys in Georgia--Sinuosities of rivers--Two streams when united do not occupy a bed of double surface--Inundations in Scotland--Floods caused by landslips in the White Mountains--Bursting of a lake in Switzerland--Devastations caused by the Anio at Tivoli--Excavations in the lavas of Etna by Sicilian rivers--Gorge of the Simeto--Gradual recession of the cataract of Niagara.

_Division of the subject._--Geology was defined to be the science which investigates the former changes that have taken place in the organic as well as in the inorganic kingdoms of nature. As vicissitudes in the inorganic world are most apparent, and as on them all fluctuations in the animate creation must in a great measure depend, they may claim our first consideration. The great agents of change in the inorganic world may be divided into two princ.i.p.al cla.s.ses, the aqueous and the igneous.

To the aqueous belong Rain, Rivers, Torrents, Springs, Currents, and Tides; to the igneous, Volcanoes, and Earthquakes. Both these cla.s.ses are instruments of decay as well as of reproduction; but they may also be regarded as antagonist forces. For the aqueous agents are incessantly laboring to reduce the inequalities of the earth's surface to a level; while the igneous are equally active in restoring the unevenness of the external crust, partly by heaping up new matter in certain localities, and partly by depressing one portion, and forcing out another, of the earth's envelope.

It is difficult, in a scientific arrangement, to give an accurate view of the combined effects of so many forces in simultaneous operation; because, when we consider them separately, we cannot easily estimate either the extent of their efficacy, or the kind of results which they produce. We are in danger, therefore, when we attempt to examine the influence exerted singly by each, of overlooking the modifications which they produce on one another; and these are so complicated, that sometimes the igneous and aqueous forces co-operate to produce a joint effect, to which neither of them unaided by the other could give rise,--as when repeated earthquakes unite with running water to widen a valley; or when a thermal spring rises up from a great depth, and conveys the mineral ingredients with which it is impregnated from the interior of the earth to the surface. Sometimes the organic combine with the inorganic causes; as when a reef, composed of sh.e.l.ls and corals, protects one line of coast from the destroying power of tides or currents, and turns them against some other point; or when drift timber, floated into a lake, fills a hollow to which the stream would not have had sufficient velocity to convey earthy sediment.

It is necessary, however, to divide our observations on these various causes, and to cla.s.sify them systematically, endeavoring as much as possible to keep in view that the effects in nature are mixed and not simple, as they may appear in an artificial arrangement.

In treating, in the first place, of the aqueous causes, we may consider them under two divisions; first, those which are connected with the circulation of water from the land to the sea, under which are included all the phenomena of rain, rivers, glaciers, and springs; secondly, those which arise from the movements of water in lakes, seas, and the ocean, wherein are comprised the phenomena of waves, tides, and currents. In turning our attention to the former division, we find that the effects of rivers may be subdivided into, first, those of a destroying and transporting, and, secondly, those of a renovating nature; in the former are included the erosion of rocks and the transportation of matter to lower levels; in the renovating cla.s.s, the formation of deltas by the influx of sediment, and the shallowing of seas; but these processes are so intimately related to each other, that it will not always be possible to consider them under their separate heads.

_Fall of Rain._--It is well known that the capacity of the atmosphere to absorb aqueous vapor, and hold it in suspension, increases with every increment of temperature. This capacity is also found to augment in a higher ratio than the augmentation of the heat. Hence, as was first suggested by the geologist, Dr. Hutton, when two volumes of air, of different temperatures, both saturated with moisture, mingle together, clouds and rain are produced, for a mean degree of heat having resulted from the union of the two moist airs, the excess of vapor previously held in suspension by the warmer of the two is given out, and if it be in sufficient abundance is precipitated in the form of rain.

As the temperature of the atmosphere diminishes gradually from the equator towards the pole, the evaporation of water and the quant.i.ty of rain diminish also. According to Humboldt's computation, the average annual depth of rain at the equator is 96 inches, while in lat. 45 it is only 29 inches, and in lat. 60 not more than 17 inches. But there are so many disturbing causes, that the actual discharge, in any given locality, may deviate very widely from this rule. In England, for example, where the average fall at London is 24 inches, as ascertained at the Greenwich Observatory, there is such irregularity in some districts, that while at Whitehaven, in c.u.mberland, there fell in 1849, 32 inches, the quant.i.ty of rain in Borrowdale, near Keswick (only 15 miles to the westward), was no less than 142 inches![262] In like manner, in India, Colonel Sykes found by observations made in 1847 and 1848, that at places situated between 17 and 18 north lat., on a line drawn across the Western Ghauts in the Deccan, the fall of rain varied from 21 to 219 inches.[263] The annual average in Bengal is probably below 80 inches, yet Dr. G. Hooker witnessed at Churrapoonjee, in the year 1850, a fall of 30 inches in 24 hours, and in the same place during a residence of six months (from June to November) 530 inches! This occurred on the south face of the Khasia (or Garrow) mountains in Eastern Bengal (see map, Chap. XVIII.), where the depth during the whole of the same year probably exceeded 600 inches. So extraordinary a discharge of water, which, as we shall presently see, is very local, may be thus accounted for. Warm, southerly winds, blowing over the Bay of Bengal, and becoming laden with vapor during their pa.s.sage, reach the low level delta of the Ganges and Brahmapootra, where the ordinary heat exceeds that of the sea, and where evaporation is constantly going on from countless marshes and the arms of the great rivers. A mingling of two ma.s.ses of damp air of different temperatures probably causes the fall of 70 or 80 inches of rain, which takes place on the plains. The monsoon having crossed the delta, impinges on the Khasia mountains, which rise abruptly from the plain to a mean elevation of between 4000 and 5000 feet. Here the wind not only encounters the cold air of the mountains, but, what is far more effective as a refrigerating cause, the aerial current is made to flow upwards, and to ascend to a height of several thousand feet above the sea. Both the air and the vapor contained in it, being thus relieved of much atmospheric pressure, expand suddenly, and are cooled by rarefaction. The vapor is condensed, and about 500 inches of rain are thrown down annually, nearly twenty times as much as falls in Great Britain in a year, and almost all of it poured down in six months. The channel of every torrent and river is swollen at this season, and much sandstone horizontally stratified, and other rocks are reduced to sand and gravel by the flooded streams. So great is the superficial waste (or _denudation_), that what would otherwise be a rich and luxuriantly wooded region, is converted into a wild and barren moorland.

After the current of warm air has been thus drained of a large portion of its moisture, it still continues its northerly course to the opposite flank of the Khasia range, only 20 miles farther north, and here the fall of rain is reduced to 70 inches in the year. The same wind then blows northwards across the valley of the Brahmapootra, and at length arrives so dry and exhausted at the Bhootan Himalaya (lat. 28 N.), that those mountains, up to the height of 5000 feet, are naked and sterile, and all their outer valleys arid and dusty. The aerial current still continuing its northerly course and ascending to a higher region, becomes further cooled, condensation again ensues, and Bhootan, above 5000 feet, is densely clothed with vegetation.[264]

In another part of India, immediately to the westward, similar phenomena are repeated. The same warm and humid winds, copiously charged with aqueous vapor from the Bay of Bengal, hold their course due north for 300 miles across the flat and hot plains of the Ganges, till they encounter the lofty Sikkim mountains. (See map, Chap. XVIII.) On the southern flank of these they discharge such a deluge of rain that the rivers in the rainy season rise twelve feet in as many hours. Numerous landslips, some of them extending three or four thousand feet along the face of the mountains, composed of granite, gneiss, and slate, descend into the beds of streams, and dam them up for a time, causing temporary lakes, which soon burst their barriers. "Day and night," says Dr.

Hooker, "we heard the crashing of falling trees, and the sound of boulders thrown violently against each other in the beds of torrents. By such wear and tear rocky fragments swept down from the hills are in part converted into sand and fine mud; and the turbid Ganges, during its annual inundation, derives more of its sediment from this source than from the waste of the fine clay of the alluvial plains below.[265]

On the verge of the tropics a greater quant.i.ty of rain falls annually than at the equator. Yet parts even of the tropical lat.i.tudes are entirely dest.i.tute of rain: Peru, for example, which owes its vegetation solely to rivers and nightly dews. In that country easterly winds prevail, blowing from the Pacific, and these being intercepted by the Andes, and cooled as they rise, are made to part with all their moisture before reaching the low region to the leeward. The desert zone of North Africa, between lat. 15 and 30 N., is another instance of a rainless region. Five or six consecutive years may pa.s.s in Upper Egypt, Nubia, and Dongola, or in the Desert of Sahara, without rain.

From the facts above mentioned, the reader will infer that in the course of successive geological periods there will be great variations in the quant.i.ty of rain falling in one and the same region. At one time there may be none whatever during the whole year; at another a fall of 100 or 500 inches; and these two last averages may occur on the two opposite flanks of a mountain-chain, not more than 20 miles wide. While, therefore, the valleys in one district are widened and deepened annually, they may remain stationary in another, the superficial soil being protected from waste by a dense covering of vegetation. This diversity depends on many geographical circ.u.mstances, but princ.i.p.ally on the height of the land above the sea, the direction of the prevailing winds, and the relative position, at the time being, of the plains, hills, and the ocean, conditions all of which are liable in the course of ages to undergo a complete revolution.

_Recent rain-prints._--When examining, in 1842, the extensive mud-flats of Nova Scotia, which are exposed at low tide on the borders of the Bay of Fundy, I observed not only the foot-prints of birds which had recently pa.s.sed over the mud, but also very distinct impressions of rain-drops. A peculiar combination of circ.u.mstances renders these mud-flats admirably fitted to receive and retain any markings which may happen to be made on their surface. The sediment with which the waters are charged is extremely fine, being derived from the destruction of cliffs of red sandstone and shale, and as the tides rise fifty feet and upwards, large areas are laid dry for nearly a fortnight between the spring and neap tides. In this interval the mud is baked in summer by a hot sun, so that it solidifies and becomes traversed by cracks, caused by shrinkage. Portions of the hardened mud between these cracks may then be taken up and removed without injury. On examining the edges of each slab, we observe numerous layers, formed by successive tides, each layer being usually very thin, sometimes only one-tenth of an inch thick. When a shower of rain falls, the highest portion of the mud-covered flat is usually too hard to receive any impressions; while that recently uncovered by the tide near the water's edge is too soft. Between these areas a zone occurs, almost as smooth and even as a looking-gla.s.s, on which every drop forms a cavity of circular or oval form, and, if the shower be transient, these pits retain their shape permanently, being dried by the sun, and being then too firm to be effaced by the action of the succeeding tide, which deposits upon them a new layer of mud. Hence we often find, in splitting open a slab an inch or more thick, on the upper surface of which the marks of recent rain occur, that an inferior layer, deposited during some previous rise of the tide, exhibits on its under side perfect casts of rain-prints, which stand out in relief, the moulds of the same being seen on the layer below. But in some cases, especially in the more sandy layers, the markings have been somewhat blunted by the tide, and by several rain-prints having been joined into one by a repet.i.tion of drops falling on the same spot; in which case the casts present a very irregular and blistered appearance.

The finest examples which I have seen of these rain-prints were sent to me by Dr. Webster, from Kentville, on the borders of the Bay of Mines, in Nova Scotia. They were made by a heavy shower which fell on the 21st of July, 1849, when the rise and fall of the tides were at their maximum. The impressions (see fig. 13) consist of cup-shaped or hemispherical cavities, the average size of which is from one-eighth to one-tenth of an inch across, but the largest are fully half an inch in diameter, and one-tenth of an inch deep. The depth is chiefly below the general surface or plane of stratification, but the walls of the cavity consist partly of a prominent rim of sandy mud, formed of the matter which has been forcibly expelled from the pit. All the cavities having an oval form are deeper at one end, where they have also a higher rim, and all the deep ends have the same direction, showing towards which quarter the wind was blowing. Two or more drops are sometimes seen to have interfered with each other; in which case it is usually possible to determine which drop fell last, its rim being unbroken.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 13.

Recent rain-prints, formed July 21, 1849, at Kentville, Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia. The arrow represents the direction of the shower.]

On some of the specimens the winding tubular tracks of worms are seen, which have been bored just beneath the surface (see fig. 13, _left side_). They occasionally pa.s.s under the middle of a rain-mark, having been formed subsequently. Sometimes the worms have dived beneath the surface, and then reappeared. All these appearances, both of rain-prints and worm-tracks, are of great geological interest, as their exact counterparts are seen in rocks of various ages, even in formations of very high antiquity.[266] Small cavities, often corresponding in size to those produced by rain, are also caused by air-bubbles rising up through sand or mud; but these differ in character from rain-prints, being usually deeper than they are wide, and having their sides steeper.

These, indeed, are occasionally vertical, or overarching, the opening at the top being narrower than the pit below. In their mode, also, of mutual interference they are unlike rain-prints.[267]

In consequence of the effects of mountains in cooling currents of moist air, and causing the condensation of aqueous vapor in the manner above described, it follows that in every country, as a general rule, the more elevated regions become perpetual reservoirs of water, which descends and irrigates the lower valleys and plains. The largest quant.i.ty of water is first carried to the highest region, and then made to descend by steep declivities towards the sea; so that it acquires superior velocity, and removes more soil, than it would do if the rain had been distributed over the plains and mountains equally in proportion to their relative areas. The water is also made by these means to pa.s.s over the greatest distances before it can regain the sea.

It has already been observed that in higher lat.i.tudes, where the atmosphere being colder is capable of holding less water in suspension, a diminished fall of rain takes place. Thus at St. Petersburg, the amount is only 16 inches, and at Uleaborg in the Gulf of Bothnia (N.

lat. 65), only 13 inches, or less than half the average of England, and even this small quant.i.ty descends more slowly in the temperate zone, and is spread more equally over the year than in tropical climates. But in reference to geological changes, frost in the colder lat.i.tude acts as a compensating power in the disintegration of rocks, and the transportation of stones to lower levels.

Water when converted into ice augments in bulk more than one-twentieth of its volume, and owing to this property it widens the minute crevices (or _joints_) of rocks into which it penetrates. Ice also in various ways, as will be shown in the next chapter, gives buoyancy to mud and sand, even to huge blocks of stone, enabling rivers of moderate size and velocity to carry them to a great distance.

The mechanical force exerted by running water in undermining cliffs, and rounding off the angles of hard rock, is mainly due to the intermixture of foreign ingredients. Sand and pebbles, when hurried along by the violence of the stream, are thrown against every obstacle lying in their way, and thus a power of attrition is acquired, capable of wearing through the hardest siliceous stones, on which water alone could make no impression.

_Newly formed valleys._--When travelling in Georgia and Alabama, in 1846, I saw in both those States the commencement of hundreds of valleys in places where the native forest had recently been removed. One of these newly formed gulleys or ravines is represented in the annexed woodcut (fig. 14), from a drawing which I made on the spot. It occurs three miles and a half due west of Milledgeville, the capital of Georgia, and is situated on the farm of Pomona, on the direct road to Macon.[268]

Twenty years ago, before the land was cleared, it had no existence; but when the trees of the forest were cut down, cracks three feet deep were caused by the sun's heat in the clay; and, during the rains, a sudden rush of water through the princ.i.p.al crack deepened it at its lower extremity, from whence the excavating power worked backwards, till, in the course of twenty years, a chasm, measuring no less than 55 feet in depth, 300 yards in length, and varying in width from 20 to 180 feet, was the result. The high road has been several times turned to avoid this cavity, the enlargement of which is still proceeding, and the old line of road may be seen to have held its course directly over what is now the wildest part of the ravine. In the perpendicular walls of this great chasm appear beds of clay and sand, red, white, yellow, and green, produced by the decomposition in situ of hornblendic gneiss, with layers and veins of quartz, which remain entire, to prove that the whole ma.s.s was once solid and crystalline.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 14.

Ravine on the farm of Pomona, near Milledgeville, Georgia, as it appeared January, 1846.

Excavated in twenty years, 55 feet deep, and 180 feet broad.]

I infer, from the rapidity of the denudation which only began here after the removal of the native wood, that this spot, elevated about 600 feet above the sea, has been always covered with a dense forest, from the remote time when it first emerged from the sea. The termination of the cavity on the right hand in the foreground is the head or upper end of the ravine, and in almost every case, such gulleys are lengthened by the streams cutting their way backwards. The depth at the upper end is often, as in this case, considerable, and there is usually at this point, during floods, a small cascade.

_Sinuosities of rivers._--In proportion as such valleys are widened, sinuosities are caused by the deflection of the stream first to one side and then to the other. The unequal hardness of the materials through which the channel is eroded tends partly to give new directions to the lateral force of excavation. When by these, or by accidental shiftings of the alluvial matter in the channel, the current is made to cross its general line of descent, it eats out a curve in the opposite bank, or in the side of the hills bounding the valley, from which curve it is turned back again at an equal angle, so that it recrosses the line of descent, and gradually hollows out another curve lower down in the opposite bank, till the whole sides of the valley, or river bed, present a succession of salient and retiring angles. Among the causes of deviation from a straight course, by which torrents and rivers tend in mountainous regions to widen the valleys through which they flow, may be mentioned the confluence of lateral torrents, swollen irregularly at different seasons by partial storms, and discharging at different times unequal quant.i.ties of sand, mud, and pebbles, into the main channel.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig. 15.]

When the tortuous flexures of a river are extremely great, as often happens in alluvial plains, the aberration from the direct line of descent may be restored by the river cutting through the isthmus which separates two neighboring curves. Thus in the annexed diagram, the extreme sinuosity of the river has caused it to return for a brief s.p.a.ce in a contrary direction to its main course, so that a peninsula is formed, and the isthmus (at _a_) is consumed on both sides by currents flowing in opposite directions. In this case an island is soon formed,--on either side of which a portion of the stream usually remains.

_Transporting power of water._--In regard to the transporting power of water, we may often be surprised at the facility with which streams of a small size, and descending a slight declivity, bear along coa.r.s.e sand and gravel; for we usually estimate the weight of rocks in air, and do not reflect on their comparative buoyancy when submerged in a denser fluid. The specific gravity of many rocks is not more than twice that of water, and very rarely more than thrice, so that almost all the fragments propelled by a stream have lost a third, and many of them a half, of what we usually term their weight.

It has been proved by experiment, in contradiction to the theories of the earlier writers on hydrostatics, to be a universal law, regulating the motion of running water, that the velocity at the bottom of the stream is everywhere less than in any part above it, and is greatest at the surface. Also that the superficial particles in the middle of the stream move swifter than those at the sides. This r.e.t.a.r.dation of the lowest and lateral currents is produced by friction; and when the velocity is sufficiently great, the soil composing the sides and bottom gives way. A velocity of three inches per second at the bottom is ascertained to be sufficient to tear up fine clay,--six inches per second, fine sand,--twelve inches per second, fine gravel,--and three feet per second, stones of the size of an egg.[269]

When this mechanical power of running water is considered, we are prepared for the transportation before alluded to of large quant.i.ties of gravel, sand, and mud, by torrents which descend from mountainous regions. But a question naturally arises, How the more tranquil rivers of the valleys and plains, flowing on comparatively level ground, can remove the prodigious burden which is discharged into them by their numerous tributaries, and by what means they are enabled to convey the whole ma.s.s to the sea? If they had not this removing power, their channels would be annually choked up, and the valleys of the lower country, and plains at the base of mountain-chains, would be continually strewed over with fragments of rock and sterile sand. But this evil is prevented by a general law regulating the conduct of running water,--that two equal streams do not, when united, occupy a bed of double surface. Nay, the width of the princ.i.p.al river, after the junction of a tributary, sometimes remains the same as before, or is even lessened. The cause of this apparent paradox was long ago explained by the Italian writers, who had studied the confluence of the Po and its feeders in the plains of Lombardy.

The addition of a smaller river augments the velocity of the main stream, often in the same proportion as it does the quant.i.ty of water.

Thus the Venetian branch of the Po swallowed up the Ferranese branch and that of Panaro without any enlargement of its own dimensions. The cause of the greater velocity is, first, that after the union of two rivers the water, in place of the friction of four sh.o.r.es, has only that of two to surmount; 2dly, because the main body of the stream being farther distant from the banks, flows on with less interruption; and lastly, because a greater quant.i.ty of water moving more swiftly, digs deeper into the river's bed. By this beautiful adjustment, the water which drains the interior country is made continually to occupy less room as it approaches the sea; and thus the most valuable part of our continents, the rich deltas and great alluvial plains, are prevented from being constantly under water.