Many of the geographical and historical notes to the drama are based upon Macpherson, "dessen historische Data noch Niemand angefochten hat."[200] From the notes to the first edition of _Minona_ we can get some idea of Gerstenberg's opinion of Ossian in the middle of the eighties. He says in note 8: "Auch konnen wir uns aus dem Ossian, dessen historische Data wenigstens itzt keinen Einwand mehr leiden, wenn gleich die achtheit seiner gegenwartigen epischen und dramatischen Gestalt noch etwaz zweydeutig seyn mochte, ganz vernunftig uberzeugen," etc. And in note 14 he writes: "Es ware ein gut Theil gewagter gewesen, einer alten Chronik, als der lautern Quelle Ossians nachzuspuren." Another note (the 10th) gives evidence of the popularity that Ossian still enjoyed as late as 1785: "Was ubrigens die ossianische Urkunde von Inisthona betrifft, ... so hat sich der Verfa.s.ser berechtigt geglaubt, diese Geschichte als aus einem der cla.s.sischen Werke unsers Jahrhunderts allgemein bekannt vorauszusetzen...". These notes are omitted in the final version of 1815, a fact which leads me to believe that Gerstenberg's early scruples returned to him late in life. _Minona_ had served to dispel them momentarily, but no doubt the unsatisfactory character of the _Report of the Committee of the Highland Society_ and the aspersions cast upon Macpherson's translation by Ahlwardt served to reestablish them in his wavering mind.

--3. Johann Nepomuk Cosmas Michael Denis.[201]

No one did more to increase the knowledge of Ossian in Germany and to enlarge the sphere of his influence there, than did the Jesuit Michael Denis, a native of Bavaria, who took up his residence in Vienna early in life and there spent the remainder of his days. Although himself the author of a considerable number of poetic productions, his contemporary fame was based primarily upon his translation of Ossian, which created a great stir at the time of its appearance, setting all the previous efforts at translation in the shade for good and all. It remained for many years the standard, the cla.s.sical German translation of the works of Ossian, in spite of the fact that the mold in which it is cast aroused the most violent opposition from many quarters.

Denis had been led to the study of English by his admiration for Klopstock's _Messiah_, the prototype of which, _Paradise Lost_, he was desirous of reading in the original. When he began his translation in 1767, he was well equipped for the task as far as a knowledge of the language is concerned, and the true poetical genius that he lacked was compensated for in large measure by the sincere enthusiasm with which he set about his task. A serious obstacle presented itself at the very outset: there was not a copy of Macpherson's Ossianic poems to be had in Vienna. Nothing daunted, Denis commenced by translating from Cesarotti's Italian translation-which had appeared at Padua in 1763[202]-a fact that explains the presence of the notes from Cesarotti interspersed throughout his translation. Fortunately he soon obtained a copy of the English original from Prague, whereupon he destroyed all he had so far done and started in afresh. His enthusiasm for the _Messiah_ led to the choice of the hexameter for his translation. Denis was a very rapid worker, a quality that stood him in good stead in the manufacture of the many occasional poems that emanated from his pen. Once on the right track, he worked at his translation with the utmost diligence and persistence and pushed it rapidly to a conclusion, volumes 1 and 2 appearing in 1768, and volume 3 in the following year. The two editions that appeared simultaneously apparently found a ready sale. In the preface to the first volume, Denis confesses what an instantaneous effect the songs of Ossian had upon him. "Kaum hatte ich ein paar Gedichte durchgelesen," he says, "als ich ihn in meinen Gedanken Homern und Virgiln an die Seite setzte." And when Ossian received Klopstock's stamp of approval, Denis was overjoyed. "Wie froh war ich! Ich fieng zu ubersetzen an."[203] At the conclusion of the preface he expresses doubts as to the gracious reception of the translation: "Ossian ist viel zu sonderlich," he thinks, "viel zu _unmodern_, viel zu unterschieden von denen Dichtern, die man immer in den Handen hat. Allein, wenn man nur einmal mit seinem Geiste bekannter wird, wenn seine Art sich auszudrucken durch ein wiederholtes Lesen ihre Ungewohnlichkeit verlieret, dann, dachte ich, sollte er nach dem _Englander_ am ersten bei einem _Deutschen_ sein Gluck machen." It was only a few years later that the real Ossian craze began in Germany, and then Denis was to realize that these _unmodern_ poems with their sentimental coloring appealed even more strongly to the German soul than they did to the English.

Dr. Blair's arguments were not needed to convince Denis of the authenticity of the poems. He could not accept as spurious poems whose author he had in his first enthusiasm placed by the side of Homer and Vergil, unless irrefutable proof of forgery were given, and this was not forthcoming. And so when Dr. Blair in the appendix to his "Dissertation"

in the edition of 1765 undertakes to defend the poems for external reasons also, Denis is led to remark: "Alle diese Grunde durften fur England und Irland, wo vielleicht Scheelsucht und Partheylichkeit Zweifler erwecket haben mag, nothiger seyn. Einen von Vorurtheilen freyen deutschen Kenner wird immer der innere Gehalt genugsam uberzeugen, das[s] Ossians Gedichte nicht unterschoben, sondern wahrhaft alte Gedichte sind." Denis never took the trouble to inst.i.tute any original researches or to devote himself to a serious study of this field, but accepted the genuineness of the poems as a matter of course.

The unanimity of the German critics allowed no scruples to arise in his mind to vex him.

The reception granted the translation was most flattering indeed, and Denis could not but feel completely satisfied with the result of his labors. Nicolai, _e. g._, writes from Berlin, as early as Nov. 14, 1769: "Ihre vortreffliche ubersetzung des Ossian, ist auch in unsern Gegenden in den Handen aller Kenner; ich auch habe sie mit grossem Vergnugen gelesen, und sie stets fur eins der wichtigsten Neuen Werke gehalten."[204] Gleim sends Denis his 'poetical trifles,' "aus Dankbarkeit vornehmlich fur das Vergnugen, welches der deutsche Ossian ihm machte."[205] Denis writes in the preface to Vol. 3: "Seitdem der erste Band dieser Uebersetzung in Deutschland bekannt geworden ist, sind mir verschiedene Beweise zugekommen, da.s.s sie dort ganz gut aufgenommen worden sey, wo ich es am meisten wunschte." The reviews in the _Neue Bibliothek der schonen Wissenschaften_, in the _Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek_, in the _Gottingische Anzeigen von gelehrten Sachen_, and elsewhere, all were extremely gratifying, and only one note of disapproval insisted upon a.s.serting itself, a note that found most emphatic expression in the _Erfurtische gelehrte Zeitungen_: the form of the translation met with p.r.o.nounced opposition. The most important of these reviews is that in the _Allgemeine Deutsche Bibliothek_. It was written by Herder, who designates the departure as "neu und schon," and refers to the poems of Ossian as "diese kostbaren Ueberbleibsel aus der alten celtischen oder gallischen Sprache." But soon doubts arise: "So sind also die Gedichte Ossians in Hexameter ubersezt-aber wurde Ossian, wenn er in unsrer Sprache sie abgesungen, sie hexametrisch abgesungen haben? oder wenn die Frage zu nah und andringend ist; mag er in seiner Originalsprache den Hexameterbau begunstigt haben? ... Oder ...: thut Ossian in seinem homerischen Gewande eben die Wurkung, als Ossian der Nordische Barde?"[206] Here was the rub: Denis had given Ossian, the Gaelic bard, the 'rough, sublime Scotchman' in the measure of a Greek rhapsodist. "Vielleicht aber wird er dadurch verschonert, und gleichsam cla.s.sisch? Er mag es werden: nur er verliert mehr, als er gewinnt, den _Bardenton seines Gesangs_."[207] The translation makes an epic, a heroic impression, but does not reproduce its natural Scotch heroic impression. Herder proceeds to show how Ossian and Homer are ant.i.theses in almost every respect, and holds that in consequence the difference in expression should be emphasized by the choice of different meters.

Although Herder regards many of Denis's hexameters as melodious and euphonious, he opines that the free meters introduced by Klopstock in his odes are better adapted to a translation of the bard. That the translation made a favorable impression upon Herder in spite of its metrical drawbacks is evidenced by the concluding lines of the review: "Wir freuen uns uberhaupt auf die ganze Fortsetzung der Dennisschen Arbeit mehr, als auf manche neuere susslallende Originale in Deutschland, und wunschen, da.s.s Ossian der Lieblingsdichter junger epischer Genies werde!"[208] Herder here had in mind Vol. 1 only; his review of Vols. 2 and 3 did not appear until three years later, in 1772, being written at about the same time as the "Auszug aus einem Briefwechsel uber Ossian und die Lieder alter Volker," which opened the _Blatter von Deutscher Art und Kunst_.[209] His viewpoint and line of argument are to all intents and purposes identical in the review and the essay. In the review he laments: "Noch immer Ossian der Hexametrist, der Klopstockianer, da man Ossian den kurztonenden, unregelma.s.sigen Celtischen Barden h.o.r.en sollte."[210] Again and again Herder returns to the attack; he can not reconcile the smooth poetry of Denis with the unpolished bard. The soft lyric cadence of Denis's verses appeals to Herder, to be sure, but "hier, so sanft, so vieltonig und schon sie sey, hier pa.s.set sie Ossianen oft so an, als etwa einen Samojedischen Gesandten bey der russischen Gesetzkommission das Ceremonienkleid des Hofmarschalls."[211] But not alone the hexameters aroused Herder's dissatisfaction; his displeasure increases when he views Denis's attempt to translate a poem in the measure employed by Gerstenberg in his _Gedicht eines Skalden_. Here Denis employs rime with poor success, and we must agree with Herder when he says: "Denis gelingen nicht Reime!"[212]

There was still another side from which Herder attacked the translation; he was not content with the language employed, which he did not consider natural enough; too many words were not sufficiently indigenous. "War Ossian nicht unser Bruder?" he asks, "und welch' ein Gluck, welch ewiges Verdienst ware es, ihn so zu verdeutschen, als ob er, ein Deutscher gewesen ware: das er doch, der Halfte nach, gewesen ist."[213]

I hinted above that Herder was not the only critic who was illpleased with Denis's choice of the hexameter. A similar chord is struck in other reviews, in the introductions to several later translations, and elsewhere.

The most appreciative notice of Denis's translation was that in the _Neue Bibliothek der schonen Wissenschaften_. From beginning to end the review teems with praise for the translator, as well as for old Ossian himself. "Wir haben die Entdeckung der Gedichte Ossians," begins the critic, "immer fur eine der wichtigsten Begebenheiten dieses Jahrhunderts in der Geschichte des Witzes und Geschmacks unsers Jahrhunderts gehalten. Ihre Avthenticitat ist nunmehro eben so sehr entschieden, als ihre Vortrefflichkeit."[214] Not only does the critic refrain from discountenancing the employment of the hexameter, but, like the reviewer in the _Hamburgischer Correspondent_, he even expresses his admiration for the verses. "In der That," he says, "haben wir kaum wohlklingendere deutsche Hexameter gesehen."[215] In order to bring the value of the poetical translation more vividly before the reader, an extract from Denis's translation is given[216] and compared with a literal prose translation that follows.[217] The value of such long extracts must not be underestimated. They occurred frequently and no doubt aroused an interest in the original in many a reader. As an ill.u.s.tration of the lyrical measure in which Denis translated the distinctively lyrical pa.s.sages of Ossian, Carril's song on the death of Crugal is given.[218] Besides we have an extract from the beginning of "Comala" and a prose version of the extract for comparison. "Comala" is one of the poems that Denis had clothed in rime, giving it the form of a modern _Singspiel_, and with this raiment the reviewer is not quite satisfied. Other voices were raised in opposition to the general form Denis had given the dramatic poem. The latter, appreciating the justice of the position of the critics, changed the structure for the edition of 1784,[219] but at the same time inserted the poem in its original form in another volume,[220] in order to satisfy those who preferred it in that shape. The objection to the first form of "Comala" we find also in the review in the _Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_, where the critic writes: "Die Comala deucht uns nicht sehr glucklich ausgefallen zu seyn.... Will man sagen: es sey Ossians Comala in ein Singspiel verwandelt, so sind wir zufrieden. Aber Ossian ist es nicht."[221]

Otherwise this review of the first volume of Denis's translation is full of compliments to the genius of the translator. The critic expresses the opinion that the poems of Ossian have gained much by the new form.

Especially does the hexameter tend to give "Fingal" the character of a true epic. On the whole, the reviewer is as much impressed with the necessity of the translation on the one hand as with the beauty of the original on the other, "Es kan diese Uebersetzung nach unserm deutschen epischen Originaldichter [Klopstock] billig gesetzet werden, billig einen nahen Platz erhalten; selbst in so fern der alte Barde mit unserm Gefuhl, und mit unsern NationalBegriffen von den ersten Zeiten weit mehr ubereinstimmt, als ein Homer und Virgil."[222]

I shall refrain from a detailed discussion of the character of the translation and would refer the reader to HofmannWellenhof's biography, pp. 16391. Denis's was the first translation to give the works of Ossian in full, and attracted attention by reason of that fact alone. He adhered as closely as possible to the original, but from the very nature of the case, he had often to expand.[223] Provincialisms abound. It cannot be denied that he failed to reproduce the spirit as given to the original by Macpherson, yet when all is said, Denis's translation is _facile princeps_ among the complete German translations. The hexameters lend an air of stateliness and dignity to the poems and give them more the air of a cla.s.sic. What is more, the novel introduction of hexameters evoked a lively discussion and so stimulated the popular interest in Ossian. The translation became a model for the school of the bards, most of whom derived their knowledge primarily from the version of their revered _confrere_. During Denis's lifetime, that is, until the opening of the new century, his translation remained the standard for Germany.[224] About the time of his death, the socalled Gaelic original began to occupy the chief attention, and when Ahlwardt's translation from the Gaelic appeared, it superseded that of Denis in the popular favor for a time, that is to say, until it began to be suspected that the Gaelic original was not all that was claimed for it.

The first collection of Denis's poems, of the songs of Sined, appeared in 1772 under the t.i.tle of _Die Lieder Sineds des Barden_. We have not far to go to discover a typical instance of the nature of Ossian's influence. The very first poem, "An Ossians Geist," will serve as a splendid example. The poem begins as follows:

Im schweigenden Thale des Mondes Umkranzet von heiligen Eichen Da walten die Geister der Barden,

Sie schweben auf Silbergewolken Den thauigten Abhang herunter,

Dann heben sich Lieder der Vorzeit, Und Harfen begleiten die Lieder, Und sanftester Nachhall entzucket Die lauschenden Walder und Fluren umher.[225]

And so on. It is scarcely necessary to point out how closely the Ossianic spirit and nature coloring have been adhered to. The Ossianic paraphernalia are all present, the silent vale,[226] the moon, the sacred oaks, the ghosts of the bards, the clouds upon which they float along the sides of the mountains,[227] the songs of the times of old attuned to the accompaniment of the harp; not even the echo is missing, resounding from woods and fields. These and similar Ossianic properties are continually resorted to in Denis's bardic productions. They give an archaic character to the whole, and lend a certain picturesqueness to the scene-when not employed to excess. We have further along "Saiten von Selma," Ossian's oft repeated 'harp of Selma,' "Zahren der Wehmuth,"

"Wipfel der Eichen," "moosige Trummer," etc. Denis proceeds to narrate the princ.i.p.al subjects of the poems of Ossian, and then confesses what an effect Ossian made upon him from the very outset; he tells us how he persisted in his purpose in spite of the fact that many of his old listeners deserted him. He concludes with the following lines:

Und, Vater von Oscar![228] dein Folger Bey kommenden Altern zu heissen!

Ha! dieser Gedanke gesellt mich Im schweigenden Thale des Mondes zu dir![229]

We should expect Denis, as a strong admirer and pupil of Klopstock, to follow in the footsteps of his master by introducing the old Norse mythology into his bardic efforts. As a matter of fact, however, it is almost completely lacking, a circ.u.mstance perhaps best explained by his religious calling.[230] About the sole indications of an interest in Old Norse are the seven songs following the first poem. Being translations and paraphrases of Old Norse material, they do not concern us here.

Next come a number of occasional poems addressed to Maria Theresa and to Joseph II. On pages 85143 we have the "Bardenfeyer am Tage Theresiens,"

first published in Vienna in 1770, in which the various offices and qualities of the empress are sung by different bards. The spirit of Klopstock and Ossian hovers over all these poems, as will appear from the extracts to follow. We shall notice also that the bardic machinery and Ossian's imagery are not neglected. The bards are described as "Die Geber des Ruhmes, die Sohne der Lieder,"[231] and are endowed with all the other characteristics of those of Ossian, as, for example, with the power of looking into the future.[232]

The poem "An Ossians Geist" showed us that Denis adopted the spirit world of Ossian, and like Klopstock and Gerstenberg, he has ghosts appear on all possible occasions, _e. g._, in "Theresia die Furstinn,"

which begins (p. 89):

Neiget euch nieder aus luftigen Hallen, Herrscher der Vorzeit im Schmucke Walhallas!

Vater von Habsburg! neiget euch her![233]

So in Ossian "the forms of the fathers bend" from their 'cloudyhall.'

In the same poem (p. 92) we have a "verfinsterte Seele," Ossian's 'darkened soul.'[234]

In the next poem, "Theresia die Gattinn," we have several Ossianic expressions, _e. g._ (p. 98):

Er zog einher dem Hirschen gleich

In Rabenlocken fiel sein Haar.

We have had occasion before to point out Ossian's comparisons to a deer, and his locks black as a raven's wings. Theresa, in true Ossianic manner, is compared to the rainbow, a star, a pine,[235] etc., and in the following poem she is said to be fairer than the moon or an oak.[236] After the death of her husband she often visits his grave:

"Dort pfleget Sie der Wehmuth l.u.s.t,"[237]

"the joy of grief." His ghost, of course, does his duty and pays her an occasional visit.[238]

A truly Ossianic picture and comparison are given in the third stanza of the following poem, "Theresia die Mutter" (p. 103):

Schon ist an des Himmels Blauem Nachtgesichte Dunsteloser Mond, Wenn er unter Sternen Sanftbeleuchtend wandelt; Aber schoner ist doch Eine noch.

Ossian's maidens are generally either "bright as the sunbeam," or else "fair as the moon." Compare also Ossian's apostrophe to the moon, beginning of "DarThula." In another line of the poem (p. 106) we have "Seelen schmelzen" and likewise in "Calthon and Colmal," p. 183, ll.

212: "The soul ... melted;" "Temora," Bk. ii, p. 318, ll. 34, etc., etc.

The tenth stanza of "Theresia die Kriegerinn" is decidedly Ossianic:

Da rollete schnell von Thranen ein Guss Die bartigsten w.a.n.gen der Manner herab; ... da flogen, wie Blitz Die wogigten Scheiden empor.[239]

Compare "CarricThura," p. 149, ll. 356: "The tear rolled down her cheek," etc. The comparison of swords to lightning, to beams of fire, or to meteors occurs again and again in Ossian.[240] In the following stanza the rush of the warriors is described (p. 110):

... so sturmet der Wind Die Blatter des Hayns im Herbste mit sich.

Ossian is very fond of comparing the rush of a host to the wind.[241]

Bartmar has to sing of battle, and it is not astonishing that we find in his song more traces of Ossian's influence than in any other song of the "Bardenfeyer," the general peaceful atmosphere of which does not offer the same possibilities for the insertion of Ossianic material. The ghosts of the fallen warriors make their appearance before the close of the battle. Theresa's eye makes the warrior bold:

Und furchtbar im Flugel der dusteren Schlacht.

Sie standen, ein Fels, und rollten den Schwall Der Krieger aus Norden zuruck.[242]

Ossian's warriors are 'terrible' and 'dark' in battle, they "stand like a rock"[243] and roll back the foe. Compare "Temora," Bk. ii, p. 318, ll. 178: "Conar was a rock before them: broken they rolled on every side;" etc. Another stanza, the twentysecond, shows a close resemblance to an Ossianic image (p. 112):

"Doch wie sich der Lenz in Schauergewolk Itzt hullet, und itzo sein holdes Gesicht Den Fluren entdeckt;"

Compare "Fingal," Bk. vi, p. 265, ll. 224: "Like the sun in a cloud, when he hides his face ..., but looks again on the hills of gra.s.s!"

Furthermore we have in the same poem (p. 113) a "Stein des Ruhmes,"[244]