No hard and fast rule can be laid down to different persons require different foods and foods and amounts at different times under different

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regulate the amount, or proper proportions, of food material for a well-balanced dietary, as amounts, and the same person requires different ferent conditions. Professor W. O. At.w.a.ter, an American, makes the following statement: 'As the habits and conditions of individuals differ, so, too, their needs for nourishment differ, and their food should be adapted to their particular requirements. It has been estimated that an average man at moderately active labor, like a carpenter, or mason, should have (daily) about 115 grams (1750 grains) or 0.25 pound of available protein, and sufficient fuel ingredients in addition to make the fuel value of the whole diet 3,400 calories; while a man at sedentary employment would be well nourished with 92 grams (1400 grains) or 0.20 pound of available protein, and enough fat and carbohydrates in addition to yield 2,700 calories of energy. The demands are, however, variable, increasing and decreasing with increase and decrease of muscular work, or as other needs of the person change. Each person, too, should learn by experience what kinds of food yield him nourishment with the least discomfort, and should avoid those which do not "agree" with him.'

It has been stated that unless the body is supplied with protein, hunger will be felt, no matter if the stomach be over-loaded with non-nitrogenous food. If a hungry man ate heartily of _only_ such foods as fresh fruit and green vegetables he might soon experience a feeling of fulness, but his hunger would not be appeased. Nature asks for protein, and hunger will continue so long as this want remains unsatisfied. Similarly as food is the first necessity of life, so is protein the first necessity in food. If a person were deprived of protein starvation must inevitably ensue.

Were we (by 'we' is meant the generality of people in this country), to weigh out our food supply, for, say a week, we should soon realise what a large reduction from the usual quant.i.ty of food consumed would have to be made, and instead of eating, as is customary, without an appet.i.te, hunger might perhaps once a day make itself felt. There is little doubt but that the health of most people would be vastly improved if food were only eaten when genuine hunger was felt, and the dietary chosen were well balanced, _i.e._, the proportions of protein, fat, carbohydrates and salts being about 3, 2, 9, 2-3. As aforesaid, the mixed vegetarian dietary is, in general, well-balanced.

While speaking about too much food, it may be pointed out that the function of appet.i.te is to inform us that the body is in need of nutriment. The appet.i.te was intended by Nature for this purpose, yet how few people wait upon appet.i.te! The generality of people eat by time, custom, habit, and sensual desire; not by appet.i.te at all. If we eat when not hungry, and drink when not thirsty, we are doing the body no good but positive harm. The organs of digestion are given work that is unnecessary, thus detracting from the vital force of the body, for there is only a limited amount of potential energy, and if some of this is spent unnecessarily in working the internal organs, it follows that there is less energy for working the muscles or the brain. So that an individual who habitually overfeeds becomes, after a time, easily tired, physically lazy, weak, perhaps if temperamentally predisposed, nervous and hypochondriacal. Moreover, over-eating not only adds to the general wear and tear, thus probably shortening life, but may even result in positive disease, as well as many minor complaints such as constipation, dyspepsia, flatulency, obesity, skin troubles, rheumatism, lethargy, etc.

Just as there is danger in eating too much, so there is much harm done by drinking too much. The evil of stimulating drinks will be spoken of later; at present reference is made only to water and harmless concoctions such as lime-juice, unfermented wines, etc. To drink when thirsty is right and natural; it shows that the blood is concentrated and is in want of fluid. But to drink merely for the pleasure of drinking, or to carry out some insane theory like that of 'washing out'

the system is positively dangerous. The human body is not a dirty barrel needing swilling out with a hose-pipe. It is a most delicate piece of mechanism, so delicate that the abuse of any of its parts tends to throw the entire system out of order. It is the function of the blood to remove all the waste products from the tissues and to supply the fresh material to take the place of that which has been removed. Swilling the system out with liquid does not in any way accelerate or aid the process, but, on the contrary, r.e.t.a.r.ds and impedes it. It dilutes the blood, thus creating an abnormal condition in the circulatory system, and may raise the pressure of blood and dilate the heart. Also it dilutes the secretions which will therefore 'act slowly and inefficiently, and more or less fermentation and putrefaction will meanwhile be going on in the food ma.s.ses, resulting in the formation of gases, acids, and decomposition products.'

Eating and drinking too much are largely the outcome of sensuality. To see a man eat sensually is to know how great a sensualist he is.

Sensualism is a vice which manifests itself in many forms. Poverty has its blessings. It compels abstinence from rich and expensive foods and provides no means for surfeit. Epicurus was not a glutton. Socrates lived on bread and water, as did Sir Isaac Newton. Mental culture is not fostered by gluttony, but gluttony is indulged in at the expense of mental culture. The majority of the world's greatest men have led comparatively simple lives, and have regarded the body as a temple to be kept pure and holy.

We have now to consider (_a_) what to eat, (_b_) when to eat, (_c_) how to eat. First, then, we will consider the nutritive properties of the common food-stuffs.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 3: This is not an exaggeration. 'Genoa Cake,' for instance, contains ten varieties of food: b.u.t.ter, sugar, eggs, flour, milk, sultanas, orange and lemon peel, almonds, and baking powder.]

II

WHAT TO EAT

Among the foods rich in protein are the legumes, the cereals, and nuts.

Those low in protein are fresh fruits, green vegetables, and roots. Fat is chiefly found in nuts, olives, and certain pulses, particularly the peanut; and carbohydrates in cereals, pulses, and many roots. Fruit and green vegetables consist mostly of water and organic mineral compounds, and in the case of the most juicy varieties may be regarded more as drink than food. We have, then, six distinct cla.s.ses of food--the pulses, cereals, nuts, fruits, green vegetables, and roots. Let us briefly consider the nutritive value of each.

Pulse foods usually form an important item in a vegetarian dietary. They are very rich in their nutritive properties, and even before matured are equal or superior in value to any other green vegetable. 'The ripened seed shows by a.n.a.lysis a very remarkable contrast to most of the matured foods, as the potato and other tubers, and even to the best cereals, as wheat. This superiority lies in the large amount of nitrogen in the form of protein that they contain.' Peas, beans, and lentils should be eaten very moderately, being highly concentrated foods. The removal of the skins from peas and beans, also of the germs of beans, by parboiling, is recommended, as they are then more easily digested and less liable to 'disagree.' These foods, it is interesting to know are used extensively by the vegetarian nations. The Mongol procures his supply of protein chiefly from the Soya bean from which he makes different preparations of bean cheese and sauce. It is said that the poorer cla.s.ses of Spaniards and the Bedouins rely on a porridge of lentils for their mainstay. In India and China where rice is the staple food, beans are eaten to provide the necessary nitrogenous matter, as rice alone is considered deficient in protein.

With regard to the pulse foods, Dr. Haig, in his works on uric acid, states that, containing as they do considerable xanthin, an exceedingly harmful poison, they are not to be commended as healthful articles of diet. He states that he has found the pulses to contain even more xanthin than many kinds of flesh-meat, and as it is this poison in flesh that causes him to so strongly condemn the eating of meat, he naturally condemns the eating of any foods in which this poison exists in any considerable quant.i.ty. He writes: 'So far as I know the "vegetarians" of this country are decidedly superior in endurance to those feeding on animal tissues, who might otherwise be expected to equal them; but these "vegetarians" would be still better if they not only ruled out animal flesh, but also eggs, the pulses (peas, beans, lentils and peanuts), eschew nuts, asparagus, and mushrooms, as well as tea, coffee and cocoa, all of which contain a large amount of uric acid, or substances physiologically equivalent to it.'

Dr. Haig attributes many diseases and complaints to the presence of uric acid in the blood and its deposits in the tissues: 'Uric acid diseases fall chiefly in two groups: (a) The arthritic group, comprising gout, rheumatism, and similar affections of many fibrous tissues throughout the body; (b) the circulation group including headache, epilepsy, mental depression, anaemia, Bright's disease, etc.' Speaking with regard to rheumatism met with among the vegetarian natives of India, Dr. Haig writes: 'I believe it will appear, on investigation, that in those parts of India where rice and fresh vegetables form the staple foods, not only rheumatism, but uric acid diseases generally are little known, whereas in those parts where pulses are largely consumed, they are common--almost universal.'

The cereals const.i.tute the mainstay of vegetarians all the world over, and although not superior to nuts, must be considered an exceedingly valuable, and, in some cases, essential food material. They differ considerably in their nutritive properties, so it is necessary to examine the worth of each separately.

Wheat, though not universally the most extensively used of the cereals, is the most popular and best known cereal in this country. It has been cultivated for ages and has been used by nearly all peoples. It is customary to grind the berries into a fine meal which is mixed with water and baked. There are various opinions about the comparative value of white and whole-wheat flour. There is no doubt but that the whole-wheat flour containing, as it does, more woody fibre than the white, has a tendency to increase the peristaltic action of the intestines, and thus is valuable for persons troubled with constipation.[4] From a large number of a.n.a.lyses it has been determined that entire wheat flour contains about 2.4 per cent. more protein than white flour (all grades), yet experiments have demonstrated that the _available_ protein is less in entire wheat-flour than in white flour.[5] This is probably due to the fact that the protein which is enclosed in the bran cannot be easily a.s.similated, as the digestive organs are unable to break up the outer walls of woody fibre and extract the nitrogenous matter they contain. On the other hand whole-wheat flour contains considerably more valuable and available mineral matter than does white flour. The two outer layers contain compounds of phosphorus, lime, iron, and soda. a.n.a.lyses by At.w.a.ter show entire-wheat flour to contain twice as much mineral matter as white flour. It is affirmed by Broadbent and others, that this mineral matter is exceedingly valuable both as a nutrient, and because of its neutralising effect upon proteid wastes, and that it is because of this that flour made from the entire-wheat berry has very superior food value to that made from the berry minus the outer cuticles. Many dietetists look upon whole-wheat bread as one of the most salutary of all foods and strongly advise its use in place of white bread. A well-known doctor states that he has known it a cure for many diseases, and thinks that many nervous complaints due to 'saline starvation' can be cured by subst.i.tuting whole-meal for white bread.

But in opposition to these views Dr. Haig thinks that as the outer brown husk of all cereals contains some xanthin, it should on this account be removed. He therefore recommends white flour, (not superfine, but cheap-grade), in place of the entire-wheat. Others, however, are of the opinion that the amount of xanthin present in the bran is so small as not to be considered, especially when, by the removal of the xanthin, valuable mineral matter is also removed.

Of course, it is difficult for a layman to form an opinion when experts differ. Perhaps the best thing to do is to use whole-wheat bread if there is any tendency to constipation. If not, then choose that which is the more palatable, or change from one to the other as inclination dictates. This adds to variety, and as digestion is better when the food is better relished, no doubt, in this case, that which pleases the taste best is the best to eat. At least, we can hold this view tentatively for the present.

Wheat flour (entire), ranks the highest of all the cereals in protein, excepting oatmeal, averaging 13 per cent. In fat it exceeds rice and rye, is equal with barley and maize, but considerably below oatmeal: averaging about 1.9 per cent. In carbohydrates it averages about seventy-two per cent., all the cereals being very much alike in quant.i.ty of these nutrients. It is a well-balanced food, as indeed, all cereals are, and is palatable prepared in a variety of ways, although, made into unleavened, unsalted bread, the sweet, nutty flavour of the berry itself is best preserved.

Oatmeal is not extensively used, comparatively speaking, although it has an excellent reputation. It is decidedly the richest cereal in protein and fat, especially fat, and this is probably why people living in cold climates find it such a sustaining food. In protein it averages 16.1 per cent.: in fat 7.2 per cent. It is very commonly used as porridge. When well cooked, that is to say, for several hours, this is a good way to prepare it, but a better is to eat it dry in the form of unsweetened oatcakes, scones, etc., these being more easily digested because necessitating thorough mastication. The above remarks regarding the removal of the bran from wheat-flour are precisely as applicable to oatmeal, as well as rye, so no more need be said on that point.

Rye flour is not unlike wheat, and is used more extensively than wheat in many parts of Europe. It has 2 per cent. less protein than wheat and its gluten is darker in colour and less elastic and so does not make as light a loaf; but this does not detract from its nutritive value at all.

Being more easily cultivated than wheat, especially in cold countries, it is cheaper and therefore more of a poor man's food.

Indian corn, or maize, or Turkish wheat, is one of the finest of cereals. It is used extensively in America, North and South, in parts of the Orient, in Italy, the Balkans, Servia, and elsewhere. It is used as a green vegetable and when fully matured is ground into meal and made into bread, porridge, biscuits, Johnny-cake, etc., etc. Corn compared to wheat is rich in fat, but in protein wheat is the richer by about 3 per cent. Sugar corn, cooked and canned, is sold in England by food-reform dealers. It is perhaps the most tasty of all the cereals.

Rice is the staple of the Orientals. The practice of removing the dark inner skin in order to give the uncooked grain a white and polished appearance, is not only an expensive operation, but a very foolish one, for it detracts largely from the nutritive value of the food, as considerable protein and other valuable matter is removed along with the bran. We are told that the Burmese and j.a.panese and other nations who use rice as their princ.i.p.al food-stuff, use the entire grain. As compared to undressed rice, the ordinary, or polished rice is deficient 3 per cent. of protein; 6 per cent. of fat; 5 per cent. of mineral matter. 'Once milled' rice can be procured in this country, but has to be specially asked for. Rice is not nearly so nitrogenous as wheat, but is equal to it in fuel value, this being due to the large amount of starch it contains. It is an excellent food, being easily digested and easily prepared.

Millet, buckwheat, wild rice, sesame, and Kaffir corn, are cereals little known in this country, although where they are raised they are largely used by the natives. However, we need not trouble to consider their food value as they are not easily procurable either in Europe or America.

Nuts are perhaps the best of all foods. There is no doubt but that man in his original wild state lived on nuts and berries and perhaps roots.

Nuts are rich in protein and fat. They are a concentrated food, very palatable, gently laxative, require no preparation but sh.e.l.ling, keep well, are easily portable, and are, in every sense, an ideal food. They have a name for being indigestible, but this may be due to errors in eating, not to the nuts. If we eat nuts, as is often done, after having loaded the stomach with a large dinner, the work of digesting them is rendered very difficult, for the digestive apparatus tires itself disposing of the meal just previously eaten. Most things are indigestible eaten under such conditions. Nuts should be looked upon as the essential part of the meal and should be eaten first; bread, salad stuffs and fruit help to supply bulk and can follow as dessert if desired. Another cause of nuts not being easily digested is insufficient mastication. They are hard, solid food, and should be thoroughly chewed and insalivated before being swallowed. If the teeth are not good, nuts may be grated in an ordinary nut-mill, and then, if eaten slowly and sparingly, will generally be found to digest. Of course with a weak digestion nuts may have to be avoided, or used in very small quant.i.ties until the digestion is strengthened; but with a normal, healthy person, nuts are a perfect food and can be eaten all the year round. Perhaps it is best not to eat a large quant.i.ty at once, but to spread the day's supply over four or five light meals. With some, however, two meals a day seems to work well.

Pine kernels are very suitable for those who have any difficulty in masticating or digesting the harder nuts, such as the brazil, filbert, etc. They are quite soft and can easily be ground into a soft paste with a pestil and mortar, making delicious b.u.t.ter. They vary considerably in nitrogenous matter, averaging about 25 per cent. and are very rich in fat, averaging about 50 per cent. Chestnuts are used largely by the peasants of Italy. They are best cooked until quite soft when they are easily digested. Chestnut meal is obtainable, and when combined with wheatmeal is useful for making biscuits and breadstuffs. Protein in chestnuts averages 10 per cent. Walnuts, Hazelnuts, Filberts, Brazils, Pecans, Hickory nuts, Beechnuts, b.u.t.ternuts, Pistachio nuts and Almonds average 16 per cent. protein; 52 per cent. fat; 20 per cent.

carbohydrates; 2 per cent. mineral salts. As each possesses a distinct flavour, one can live on nuts alone and still enjoy the pleasure of variety. A man weighing 140 lbs. would, at moderately active labour, require, to live on almonds alone--11 ozs. per day. 10 ozs. of nuts per day together with some fresh fruit or green salad in summer, and in winter, some roots, as potato, carrot, or beetroot, would furnish an ideal diet for one whose taste was simple enough to relish it.

Fruits are best left alone in winter. They are generally acid, and the system is better without very acid foods in the cold weather. But fruits are health-giving foods in warm and hot weather, and living under natural, primitive conditions, this is the only time of the year we should have them, for Nature only provides fruit during the months of summer. The fraction of protein fruit contains, 1 per cent. or less, is too small to be of any account. The nutritive value of fruits consists in their mineral salts, grape-sugar and water.

Much the same applies to green vegetables. In cooking vegetables care should be taken that the water they are cooked in is not thrown away as it contains nearly all the nutrient properties of the vegetable; that is to say, the various salts in the vegetable become dissolved in the water they are boiled in. This water can be used for soup if desired, or evaporated, and with flour added to thicken, served as sauce to the vegetable. Potatoes are a salutary food, especially in winter. They contain alkalies which help to lessen the acc.u.mulation of uric acid.

They should be cooked with skins on: 16 grains per lb. more of valuable potash salts are thus obtained than when peeled and boiled in the ordinary way. The ideal method, however, of taking most vegetables is in the form of uncooked salads, for in these the health-giving, vitalising elements remain unaltered.

If man is to be regarded, as many scientists regard him, as a frugivore, const.i.tutionally adapted and suited to a nut-fruit diet, then to regain our lost original taste and acquire a liking for such simple foods should be our aim. It may be difficult, if not impossible, to make a sudden change after having lived for many years upon the complex concoctions of the chef's art, for the system resents sudden changes, but with proper care, changing discreetly, one can generally attain a desired end, especially when it involves the replacing of a bad habit by a good one.

In the recipes that follow no mention is made of condiments, _i.e._, pepper, salt, mustard, spice, _et hoc genus omni_. Condiments are not foods in any sense whatever, and the effect upon the system of 'seasoning' foods with these artificial aids to appet.i.te, is always deleterious, none the less because it may at the time be imperceptible, and may eventually result in disease. Dr. Kellogg writes: 'By contact, they irritate the mucous membrane, causing congestion and diminished secretion of gastric juice when taken in any but quite small quant.i.ties.

When taken in quant.i.ties so small as to occasion no considerable irritation of the mucous membrane, condiments may still work injury by their stimulating effects, when long continued.... Experimental evidence shows that human beings, as well as animals of all cla.s.ses, live and thrive as well without salt as with it, other conditions being equally favorable. This statement is made with a full knowledge of counter arguments and experiments, but with abundant testimony to support the position taken.... All condiments hinder natural digestion.'

Condiments, together with such things as pickles, vinegar, alcohol, tea, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, opium, are all injurious, and undoubtedly are the cause of an almost innumerable number of minor, and, in some cases, serious, complaints. Theine, caffeine, and theobromine, all stimulant drugs, are present in tea, coffee, and cocoa, respectively. Tea also contains tannin, a substance which is said to seriously impair digestion.

Alcohol, tea, coffee, etc., are stimulants. Stimulants do not produce force and should never be mistaken for food. They are undoubtedly injurious, as they are the cause, among other evils, of _loss_ of force.

They cause an abnormal metabolism which ultimately weakens and exhausts the whole system. While these internal activities are taking place, artificial feelings of well-being, or, at least, agreeable sensations, are produced, which are unfortunately mistaken for signs of benefit.

Speaking of alcohol Dr. Haig writes: 'It introduces no alb.u.men or force, it merely affects circulation, nutrition, and the metabolism of the alb.u.mens already in the body, and this call on the resources of the body is invariably followed by a corresponding depression or economy in the future.... It has been truly said that the man who relies upon stimulants for strength is lost, for he is drawing upon a reserve fund, which is not completely replaced, and physiological bankruptcy must inevitably ensue. This is what the stimulants such as tea, coffee, alcohol, tobacco, opium and cocaine do for those who trust in them.'

He who desires to enjoy life desires to possess good physical health, for a healthy body is almost essential to a happy life; and he who desires to live healthily does not abuse his body with poisonous drugs.

It may require courage to reform, but he who reforms in this direction has the satisfaction of knowing that his good health will probably some day excite the envy of his critics.

The chemical composition of all the common food materials can be seen from tables of a.n.a.lyses. It would be to the advantage of everyone to spend a little time examining these tables. It is not a difficult matter, and the trouble to calculate the quant.i.ty of protein in a given quant.i.ty of food, when once the _modus operandi_ is understood, is trifling. As it has not unwisely been suggested, if people would give, say, one-hundredth the time and attention to studying the needs of the body and how to satisfy them as they give to dress and amus.e.m.e.nt, there is little doubt that there would be more happiness in the world.

The amount of protein in any particular prepared food is arrived at in the following manner: In the first place those ingredients containing a noticeable amount of protein are carefully weighed. Food tables are then consulted to discover the protein percentage. Suppose, for instance, the only ingredient having a noticeable quant.i.ty of protein is rice, and 1 lb. is used. The table is consulted and shows rice to contain eight per cent. protein. In 1 lb. avoirdupois there are 7,000 grains; eight per cent. of 7,000 is 70.00 8 = 560 grains. Therefore, in the dish prepared there are 560 grains of protein. It is as well after cooking to weight the entree or pudding and divide the number of ounces it weighs into 560, thus obtaining the number of grains per ounce. Weighing out food at meals is only necessary at first, say for the first week or so.

Having decided about how many grains of protein to have daily, and knowing how many grains per ounce the food contains, the eye will soon get trained to estimate the quant.i.ty needed. It is not necessary to be exact; a rough approximation is all that is needed, so as to be sure that the system is getting somewhere near the required amount of nutriment, and not suffering from either a large excess or deficiency of protein.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote 4: Entire-wheat flour averages .9 per cent. fibre; high-grade white flour, .2 per cent. fibre.]

[Footnote 5: See United States Dept. of Agriculture, Farmer's Bulletin, No. 249, page 19, obtainable from G. P. O., Washington, D. C.]