[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 105]

Now, I don't say that there are any atoms at all like the ones I have pictured. There is still a great deal to be learned about how electrons act inside different kinds of atoms. We do know, however, that the atoms of iron act just as if they were tiny loops with electron streams.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 106]

Suppose we had several loops and that they were lined up like the three loops in Fig. 105. You can see that they would all attract the other loop, on the right in the figure. On the other hand if they were grouped in the triangle of Fig. 106 they would barely affect the loop because they would be pulling at cross purposes. If a lot of the tiny loops of the iron atoms are lined up so as to act together and attract other loops, as in the first figure, we say the iron is magnetized and is a magnet. In an ordinary piece of iron, however, the atoms are so grouped that they don't pull together but like the loops of our second figure pull in different directions and neutralize each other's efforts so that there is no net effect.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Pl. IX.--Western Electric Loud Speaking Receiver.

Crystal Detector Set of the General Electric Co. Audibility Meter of General Radio Co.]

And like the loops of Fig. 106 the atoms in an unmagnetized piece of iron are pretty well satisfied to stay as they are without all lining up to pull together. To magnetize the iron we must force some of these atomic loops to turn part way around. That can be done by bringing near them a strong magnet or a coil of wire which is carrying a current. Then the atoms are forced to turn and if enough turn so that there is an appreciable effect then the iron is magnetized. The more that are properly turned the stronger is the magnet. One end or "pole" we call north-seeking and the other south-seeking, because a magnetized bar of iron acts like a compa.s.s needle.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 107]

A coil of wire, carrying a current, acts just like a magnet because its larger loops are all ready to pull together. I have marked the coil of Fig. 107 with _N_ and _S_ for north and south. If the electron stream in it is reversed the "polarity" is reversed. There is a simple rule for this. Partially close your left hand so that the fingers form loops. Let the thumb stick out at right angles to these loops. If the electron streams are flowing around the loops of a coil in the same direction as your fingers point then your thumb is the _N_ pole and the coil will repel the north poles of other loops or magnets in the direction in which your thumb points. If you know the polarity already there is a simple rule for the repulsion or attraction. Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.

From what has been said about magnetism you can now understand why in a telephone receiver the current in the winding can make the magnet stronger. It does so because it makes more of the atomic loops of the iron turn around and help pull. On the other hand if the current in the winding is reversed it will turn some of the loops which are already helping into other positions where they don't help and may hinder. If the current in the coil is to help, the electron stream in it must be so directed that the north pole of the coil is at the same end as the north pole of the magnet.

This idea of the attraction or repulsion of electron streams, whether in coils of wire or in atoms of iron and other magnetizable substances, is the fundamental idea of most forms of telephone receivers, of electric motors, and of a lot of other devices which we call "electromagnetic."

The ammeters and voltmeters which we use for the measurement of audion characteristics and the like are usually electromagnetic instruments.

Ammeters and voltmeters are alike in their design. Both are sensitive current-measuring instruments. In the case of the voltmeter, as you know, we have a large resistance in series with the current-measuring part for the reason of which I told in Letter 8. In the case of ammeters we sometimes let all the current go through the current-measuring part but generally we let only a certain fraction of it do so. To pa.s.s the rest of the current we connect a small resistance in parallel with the measuring part. In both types of instruments the resistances are sometimes hidden away under the cover. Both instruments must, of course, be calibrated as I have explained before.

In the electromagnetic instruments there are several ways of making the current-measuring part. The simplest is to let the current, or part of it, flow through a coil which is pivoted between the _N_ and _S_ poles of a strong permanent magnet. A spring keeps the coil in its zero position and if the current makes the coil turn it must do so against this spring. The stronger the current in the coil the greater the interaction of the loops of the coil and those of the iron atoms and hence the further the coil will turn. A pointer attached to the coil indicates how far; and the number of volts or amperes is read off from the calibrated scale.

Such instruments measure direct-currents, that is, steady streams of electrons in one direction. To measure an alternating current or voltage we can use a hot-wire instrument or one of several different types of electromagnetic instruments. Perhaps the simplest of these is the so-called "plunger type." The alternating current flows in a coil; and a piece of soft iron is so pivoted that it can be attracted and moved into the coil. Soft iron does not make a good permanent magnet. If you put a piece of it inside a coil which is carrying a steady current it becomes a magnet but about as soon as you interrupt the current the atomic loops of the iron stop pulling together. Almost immediately they turn into all sorts of positions and form little self-satisfied groups which don't take any interest in the outside world. (That isn't true of steel, where the atomic loops are harder to turn and to line up, but are much more likely to stay in their new positions.)

Because the plunger in an alternating-current ammeter is soft iron its loops line up with those of the coil no matter which way the electron stream happens to be going in the coil. The atomic magnets in the iron turn around each time the current reverses and they are always, therefore, lined up so that the plunger is attracted. If the plunger has much inertia or if the oscillations of the current are reasonably frequent the plunger will not move back and forth with each reversal of the current but will take an average position. The stronger the a-c (alternating current) the farther inside the coil will be this position of the plunger. The position of the plunger becomes then a measure of the strength of the alternating current.

Instruments for measuring alternating e. m. f.'s and currents, read in volts and in amperes. So far I haven't stopped to tell what we mean by one ampere of alternating current. You know from Letter 7 what we mean by an ampere of d-c (direct current). It wasn't necessary to explain before because I told you only of hot-wire instruments and they will read the same for either d-c or a-c.

When there is an alternating current in a wire the electrons start, rush ahead, stop, rush back, stop, and do it all over again and again. That heats the wire in which it happens. If an alternating stream of electrons, which are doing this sort of thing, heats a wire just exactly as much as would a d-c of one ampere, then we say that the a-c has an "effective value" of one ampere. Of course part of the time of each cycle the stream is larger than an ampere but for part it is less. If the average heating effect is the same the a-c is said to be one ampere.

In the same way, if a steady e. m. f. (a d-c e. m. f.) of one volt will heat a wire to which it is applied a certain amount and if an alternating e. m. f. will have the same heating effect in the same time, then the a-c e. m. f. is said to be one volt.

Another electromagnetic instrument which we have discussed but of which more should be said is the iron-cored transformer. We consider first what happens in one of the coils of the transformer.

The inductance of a coil is very much higher if it has an iron core. The reason is that then the coil acts as if it had an enormously larger number of turns. All the atomic loops of the core add their effects to the loops of the coil. When the current starts it must line up a lot of these atomic loops. When the current stops and these loops turn back into some of their old self-satisfied groupings, they affect the electrons in the coil. Where first they opposed the motion of these electrons, now they insist on its being continued for a moment longer.

I'll prove that by describing two simple experiments; and then we'll have the basis for understanding the effect of an iron core in a transformer.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 33]

Look again at Fig. 33 of Letter 9 which I am reproducing for convenience. We considered only what would happen in coil _cd_ if a current was started in coil _ab_. Suppose instead of placing the coils as shown in that figure they are placed as in Fig. 108. Because they are at right angles there will be no effect in _cd_ when the current is started in _ab_. Let the current flow steadily through _ab_ and then suddenly turn the coils so that they are again parallel as shown by the dotted positions. We get the same temporary current in _cd_ as we would if we should place the coils parallel and then start the current in _ab_.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 108]

The other experiment is this: Starting with the coils lined up as in the dotted position of Fig. 108 and the current steadily flowing in _ab_, we suddenly turn them into positions at right angles to each other. There is the same momentary current in _cd_ as if we had left them lined up and had opened the switch in the circuit of _ab_.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 109]

Now we know that the atomic loops of iron behave in the same general way as do loops of wire which are carrying currents. Let us replace the coil _ab_ by a magnet as shown in Fig. 109. First we start with the magnet at right angles to the coil _cd_. Suddenly we turn it into the dotted position of that figure. There is the same momentary current in _cd_ as if we were still using the coil _ab_ instead of a magnet. If now we turn the magnet back to a position at right angles to _cd_, we observe the opposite direction of current in _cd_.

These effects are more noticeable the more rapidly we turn the magnet.

The same is true of turning the coil.

The experiment of turning the magnet ill.u.s.trates just what happens in the case of a transformer with, an iron core except that instead of turning the entire magnet the little atomic loops do the turning inside the core. In the secondary of an iron-cored transformer the induced current is the sum of two currents both in the same direction at each instant. One current is caused by the starting or stopping of the current in the primary. The other current is due to the turning of the atomic loops of the iron atoms so that more of them line up with the turns of the primary. These atomic loops, of course, are turned by the current in the primary. There are so many of them, however, that the current due to their turning is usually the more important part of the total current.

In all transformers the effect is greater the more rapidly the current changes direction and the atomic loops turn around. For the same size of electron stream in the primary, therefore, there is induced in the secondary a greater e. m. f. the greater is the frequency with which the primary current alternates.

Where high frequencies are dealt with it isn't necessary to have iron cores because the effect is large enough without the help of the atomic loops. And even if we wanted their help it wouldn't be easy to obtain, for they dislike to turn so fast and it takes a lot of power to make them do so. We know that fact because we know that an iron core increases the inductance and so chokes the current. For low frequencies, however, that is those frequencies in the audio range, it is usually necessary to have iron cores so as to get enough effect without too many turns of wire.

The fact that iron decreases the inductance and so seriously impedes alternating currents leads us to use iron-core coils where we want high inductance. Such coils are usually called "choke coils" or "r.e.t.a.r.d coils." Of their use we shall see more in a later letter where we study radio-telephone transmitters.

LETTER 21

YOUR RECEIVING SET AND HOW TO EXPERIMENT

MY DEAR STUDENT:

In this letter I want to tell you how to experiment with radio apparatus. The first rule is this: Start with a simple circuit, never add anything to it until you know just why you are doing so, and do not box it up in a cabinet until you know how it is working and why.

Your antenna at the start had better be a single wire about 25 feet high and about 75 feet long. This antenna will have capacity of about 0.0001 m. f. If you want an antenna of two wires s.p.a.ced about three feet apart I would make it about 75 feet long. Bring down a lead from each wire, twisting them into a pigtail to act like one wire except near the horizontal part of the antenna.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 110]

Your ground connection can go to a water pipe. To protect the house and your apparatus from lightning insert a fuse and a little carbon block lightning arrester such as are used by the telephone company in their installations of house phones. You can also use a so-called "vacuum lightning arrester." In either case the connections will be as shown in Fig. 111. If you use a loop antenna, of course, no arrester is needed.

At first I would plan to receive signals between 150 meters and 360 meters. This will include the amateurs who work between 160 and 200 m., the special amateurs who send C-W telegraph at 275 m., and the broadcasting stations which operate at 360 m. This range will give you plenty to listen to while you are experimenting. In addition you will get some ship signals at 300 m.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 111]

To tune the antenna to any of the wave lengths in this range you can use a coil of 75 turns wound on a cardboard tube of three and a half inches in diameter. You can wind this coil of bare wire if you are careful, winding a thread along with the wire so as to keep the successive turns separated. In that case you will need to construct a sliding contact for it. That is the simplest form of tuner.

On the other hand you can wind with single silk covered wire and bring out taps at the 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 14, 20, 28, 36, 44, 56, 66, and 75th turns. To make a tap drill a small hole through the tube, bend the wire into a loop about a foot long and pull this loop through the hole as shown in Fig. 110. Then give the wire a twist, as shown, so that it can't pull out, and proceed with your winding.

Use 26 s. s. c. wire. You will need about 80 feet and might buy 200 to have enough for the secondary coil. Make contacts to the taps by two rotary switches as shown in Fig. 112. You can buy switch arms and contacts studs or a complete switch mounted on a small panel of some insulating compound. Let switch _s_{1}_ make the contacts for taps between 14 and 75 turns, and let switch _s_{2}_ make the other contacts.

For the secondary coil use the same size of wire and of core. Wind 60 turns, bringing out a tap at the middle. To tune the secondary circuit you will need a variable condenser. You can buy one of the small ones with a maximum capacity of about 0.0003 mf., one of the larger ones with a maximum capacity of 0.0005 mf., or even the larger size which has a maximum capacity of 0.001 mf. I should prefer the one of 0.0005 mf.

You will need a crystal detector--I should try galena first--and a so-called "cat's whisker" with which to make contact with the galena.

For these parts and for the switch mentioned above you can shop around to advantage. For telephone receivers I would buy a really good pair with a resistance of about 2500 ohms. Buy also a small mica condenser of 0.002 mf. for a blocking condenser. Your entire outfit will then look as in Fig. 112. The switch _S_ is a small knife switch.

To operate, leave the switch _S_ open, place the primary and secondary coils near together as in the figure and listen. The tuning is varied, while you listen, by moving the slider of the slide-wire tuner or by moving the switches if you have connected your coil for that method. Make large changes in the tuning by varying the switch _s_{1}_ and then turn slowly through all positions of _s_{2}_, listening at each position.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Fig 112]