{239b} Le Blanc de Beaulieu, Louis (1614-1675). A French Protestant theologian who enjoyed the consideration of both parties and was approached by Turenne with a view to a reunion of the churches. His position was sustained before the Protestant Academy at Sedan with certain theses published under the t.i.tle of _Theses Sedanenzes_ in 1683.

{239c} Thiersch, Heinrich Wilhelm Josias (1817-1885). Born in Munich and died in Basle; held for a time a Professorship of Theology in Marburg, then became the princ.i.p.al pastor of the Irvingite Church in Germany, preaching in many cities. He wrote many books. His _Vorlesungen uber Katholizismus und Protestantismus_ appeared first in 1846.

{239d} Mohler, Johann Adam (1796-1838). Born in Igersheim and died in Munich. A Catholic theologian and Professor of Theology at Tubingen. His _Neue Untersuchungen der Lehrgegensatze zwischen den Katholiken und Protestanten_ was first published in Mainz in 1834.

{240a} Scherer, Edmond (1815-1889). A French theologian; born in Paris, died at Versailles. Was for a time in England, then Professor of Exegesis in Geneva. Was for many years a leader of the French Protestant Church. His _Melanges de critique religieuse_ appeared in Paris in 1860.

{240b} Hooker, Richard (1554-1600). Born in Exeter. In 1584 was Rector of Drayton-Beauchamp, near Tring, and the following year became Master of the Temple. In 1591 became Vicar of Bos...o...b.. and sub-Dean of Salisbury.

His _Laws of Ecclesiastical Polity_ was published in 1594. In 1595 he removed to Bishopsbourne, near Canterbury, where he died.

{240c} Weingarten, Hermann (1834-1892). Protestant ecclesiastical historian, born in Berlin, where in 1868 he became a professor, later held chairs successively at Marberg and Breslau. His book _Die Revolutionskirchen Englands_ appeared in 1868.

{240d} Kliefoth, Theodor Friedrich (1810-1895). A Lutheran theologian; born at Kirchow in Mecklenburg, and died at Schwerin, where he was for a time instructor to the Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, and held various offices in connexion with that state. He wrote many theological works. His _Acht Bucher von der Kirche_ was published at Schwerin in 1 volume in 1854.

{240e} Laurent, Francois (1810-1887). Born in Luxemburg and died in Gent, where he long held a professorship. His princ.i.p.al work, _Etudes sur l'histoire de l'humanite_, _Histoire du droit des gens_ was published in Brussels in 18 volumes between 1860 and 1870.

{241a} Ferrari, Guiseppe (1812-1876) was born in Milan, and died in Rome. Achieved fame as a philosophical historian. Held a chair at Turin and afterwards at Milan. As member of the Parliament of Piedmont he was an opponent of Cavour's policy of a United Italy. His princ.i.p.al book is ent.i.tled _Histoire des revolutions de l'Italie_, _ou Guelfes et Gibelins_, published in Paris in four volumes between 1856 and 1858.

{241b} Lange, Friedrich Albert (1828-1875). Philosopher and economic writer, born at Wald bei Solingen, died at Marburg. Held a professorial chair at Zurich and later at Marburg. His most famous book, the _Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner Bedentung in der Gegenwart_, first appeared in 1866. It was published in England in 1878- 81 by Trubner in three volumes.

{241c} Guicciardini, Francesco (1483-1540), the Italian historian and statesman, was born at Florence. Undertook in 1512 an emba.s.sy from Florence to the Court of Ferdinand the Catholic, and learned diplomacy in Spain. In 1515 he entered the service of Pope Leo X. His princ.i.p.al book is his _History of Italy_. The _Istoria d'Italia_ appeared in Florence in ten volumes between 1561 and 1564. His _Recordi Politici_ consists of some 400 aphorisms on political and social topics and has been described by an Italian critic as "Italian corruption codified and elevated to a rule of life."

{241d} Duperron, Jacques Davy (1556-1618), a Cardinal of the Church, born at Saint Lo. He was a Court preacher under Henry III of France and denounced Elizabeth of England in a funeral sermon on Mary Stuart. It is told of him that he once demonstrated before the king the existence of G.o.d, and being complimented upon his irrefutable arguments, replied that he was prepared to bring equally good arguments to prove that G.o.d did not exist. He became Bishop of Evreux in 1591.

{242a} Richelieu, Cardinal--(Armand-Jean Du Plessis)--(1585-1642). The famous minister of Louis XIII; born in Paris, of a n.o.ble family of Poitou. Was made Bishop of Lucon by Henry IV at the age of twenty-two.

Became Almoner to Marie de Medici, the Regent of France. Was elected a Cardinal in 1622. He wrote many books, including theological works, tragedies, and his own Memoirs. The authenticity of his _Testament politique_ was disputed by Voltaire.

{242b} Harrington, James (1611-1677) was born at Upton, Northamptonshire; was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge. He travelled on the Continent, but was back in England at the time of the Civil War, in which, however, he took no part. He published his _Oceana_ in 1656. He is buried in St. Margaret's Church, Westminster, next to the tomb of Sir Walter Raleigh. His _Writings_ in an edition issued in 1737 by Millar contained twenty separate treatises in addition to _Oceana_, but concerned with that book.

{242c} Mignet, Francois Auguste Marie (1796-1884). The historian; was born at Aix and died in Paris. Published his _History of the French Revolution_ in 1824. His _Negociations relatives a la succession d'Espagne_ appeared in 4 volumes between 1836 and 1842. He also wrote a _Life of Franklin_, a _History of Mary Stuart_, and many other works.

{243a} Rousseau, Jean Jacques (1712-1778), the famous writer, was born in Geneva and died at Ermenonville. Much of his life story has been told in his incomparable _Confessions_. In 1759 he published _Nouvelle Heloise_; in 1762, _L'Emile ou de l'Education_. His _Considerations sur la Pologne_ was written by Rousseau in 1769 in response to an application to apply his own theories to a scheme for the renovation of the government of Poland, in which land anarchy was then at its height. Mr.

John Morley (_Rousseau_, Vol. II) dismisses the pamphlet with a contemptuous line.

{243b} Foncin, Pierre (1841- still living). A French Professor of History; born at Limoges, and has long held important official positions in connexion with education. He has written many books, including an _Atlas Historique_. His _Essai sur le ministere Turgot_ appeared in 1876, and obtained a prize from the French Academy.

{243c} Burke, Edmund (1729-1797), the famous statesman, was born in Dublin and died at Beaconsfield, Bucks, where he was buried. His _Vindication of Natural Society_ appeared in 1756. Burke entered Parliament for Wendover in 1765, sat for Bristol, 1774-80, and Malton, 1780-94. His _Collected Works_ first appeared in 1792-1827 in 8 volumes, the first three of which were issued in his lifetime; his _Collected Works and Correspondence_ was published in 8 volumes in 1852, but the _Correspondence_ had appeared separately in 4 volumes in 1844.

{243d} Las Cases, Emmanuel Augustine Dieudonne Marir Joseph (1766-1842).

Educated at the Military School in Paris but entered the French navy; emigrated at the Revolution; fought at Quiberon; taught French in London; published in 1802 his _Atlas historique et geographique_ under the pseudonym of "Le Sage." On his return to France he came under the notice of Napoleon, who made him a Count of the Empire and sent him upon several important missions. During the Emperor's exile in Elba he again went to England. He returned during the Hundred Days and accompanied Napoleon to St. Helena. Here he recorded day by day the conversations of the great exile. At the end of eighteen months he was exiled by Sir Hudson Lowe to the Cape of Good Hope. He returned to France after the death of Napoleon and became a Deputy under Louis Philippe. His _Memorial de Sainte-Helene_, published in 1823-1824, secured a great success.

{244a} Holtzendorff, Franz von (1829-1889), was Professor of Jurisprudence first at Berlin and afterwards at Munich, where he died. He wrote many books concerned with crime and its punishment, with the prison systems of the world, etc. His _Enzyklopadie der Rechtswissenschaft in systematischer und alphabetischer Bearbeitung_ was first published at Leipzig in 1870 and 1871.

{244b} Jhering, Rudolph von (1818-1892), was for a time professor at Basle, Rostock, Kiel and Vienna. His _Geist des romischen Rechts auf den verschiedenen Stufen seiner Entwickelung_ appeared in Leipzig between 1852 and 1865, and is counted a cla.s.sic in jurisprudence.

{244c} Geib, Karl Gustav (1808-1864). An eminent criminologist. Was a Professor of Zurich and afterwards of Tubingen, where he died. Wrote many books, of which the most important was his _Geschichte des romischen Kriminalprozesses bis zum Tode Justinians_ in 1842. His _Lehrbuch des deutschen Strafrechts_ appeared in 1861 and 1862, but was never completed.

{245a} Maine, Sir Henry James Sumner (1822-1888). Jurist; born in Kelso, Scotland; educated at Christ's Hospital, London, and at Pembroke College, Cambridge; was Regius Professor of Civil Law at Cambridge, 1847- 54. In 1862 he became a legal member of Council in India and held the office for seven years. In 1871 he became a K.C.S.I. and had a seat on the Indian Council. In 1877 he was elected Master of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, and in 1887 became Whewell Professor of International Law at Cambridge. He died at Cannes. His princ.i.p.al work is his _Ancient Law_: _its Connexion with the Early History of Society and its Relation to Modern Ideas_, first published in 1861.

{245b} Gierke, Otto Friedrich (1841- still living), was born in Stettin; was Professor of Law in Breslau, Heidelberg and Berlin successively.

Served in the Franco-German War of 1870. His princ.i.p.al work, _Das deutsche Genossenschaftsrecht_, appeared in 3 volumes in Berlin, the first in 1868, the third in 1881.

{245c} Stahl, Friedrich Julius (1802-1861), was born in Munich of Jewish parents, died in Bruckenau. Held chairs of law and jurisprudence in Berlin and other cities, and wrote many books. His _Die Philosophie des Rechts und geschichtlicher Ansicht_ appeared at Heidelberg in 2 volumes in 1830 and 1837.

{246a} Gentz, Friedrich von (1764-1832). A distinguished publicist and statesman; born in Breslau, died at Weinhaus, near Vienna; studied Jurisprudence in Konigsberg. One of his earliest literary efforts was a translation of Burke's _Reflections upon the French Revolution_. Played a very considerable part in the combination of the powers of Europe against Napoleon in 1809-15. He was the author of many books. His _Briefewechsel mit Adam Muller_ was published in Stuttgart in 1857--long after his death.

{246b} Vollgraff, Karl Friedrich (1794-1863), was for a time Professor of Jurisprudence at Marburg, where he died. His two most important books were: (1) _Der Systeme der praktischen Politik im Abendlande_; (2) _Erster Versuch einer Begrundung der allgemeinen Ethnologie durch die Anthropologie und der Staats und Rechts Philosophie durch die Ethnologie oder Nationalitat der Volker_, published in 4 volumes in 1851 to 1855. It is in this last volume that a section is devoted to Polignosie.

{246c} Frantz, Konstantin (1817-1891). Distinguished publicist; born at Halberstadt and died at Blasewitz, near Dresden, where he made his home for many years. Was for a time German Consul in Spain. His great doctrine laid down in his _Die Weltpolitik_, 1883, was the union of Central Europe against the growing power of Russia and the United States of America. His _Kritik aller Parteien_ was published in Berlin in 1862.

{246d} Maistre, Joseph Marie Comte de (1753-1821). A distinguished French publicist; born at Chambery; studied at the University of Turin.

Lived for some years at Lausanne, where he published in 1796 his _Considerations sur la Revolution francaise_.

{247a} Donoso Cortes, Jean Francois (1809-1853). A famous Spanish publicist; born in Estremadura; played a considerable part in Spanish affairs under Marie-Christine and Queen Isabella. Was for a time Spanish Amba.s.sador to Berlin, and later to France, where he died in Paris. He wrote much upon such questions as the Catholic Church and Socialism.

{247b} Perin, Henri Charles Xavier (1815- ), a Belgium economist, born at Mons; became an advocate at Brussels and also Professor of Political Economy in that city. His book _De la Richesse dans les Societes Chretiennes_ appeared in Paris in 2 volumes in 1861.

{247c} Le Play, Pierre Guillaume Frederic (1806-1882). Born at Honfleur. He directed the organization of the Paris International Exhibitions of 1855 and 1867. He wrote many books. His _La reforme sociale en France deduite de l'observation comparee des peuples Europeens_ was published in two volumes in 1864.

{247d} Riehl, Wilhelm Heinrich (1823-1897). A well-known author; born at Biebrich-am-Rhein, died in Munich. He was a.s.sociated with several German newspapers, and edited from 1848 to 1851 the _Na.s.sauische Allgemeine Zeitung_, from 1851 to 1853 the _Augsburger Allgemeine Zeitung_, and afterwards became a Professor of Literature at Munich. In 1885 he became the director of the Bavarian National Museum. He wrote many books, the one referred to by Lord Acton having been published in 1851 under the t.i.tle of _Die burgerliche Gesellschaft_.

{248a} Sismondi, Jean Charles Leonard Sismonde de (1773-1842), the distinguished historian of the Italian republics, was born at Geneva of an Italian family originally from Pisa. He resided for a time in England. His famous book the _Histoire des Republiques Italiennes de Moyen-Age_ appeared between 1807 and 1818 in 16 volumes. His _Etudes sur les Const.i.tutions des Peuples Libres_, was one of many other books.

{248b} Rossi, Pellegrino Luigi Odoardo (1787-1848). An Italian publicist; born at Carrara. Keenly sympathized with the French Revolution and served under Murat in the Hundred Days, after which he fled to Geneva. In later years he became a nationalized Frenchman, occupied a Chair of Const.i.tutional Law, and finally became a peer. As Comte Rossi he went on a special emba.s.sy to Rome. He was a.s.sa.s.sinated in that city during the troubles of 1848. His _Traite du Droit Const.i.tutionnel_ appeared in 2 volumes.

{248c} Barante, Aimable Guillaume Prosper Brugiere, baron de (1782-1868), historian and politician, was born at Riom. He was made a Counciller of State by Louis XVIII in 1815, and a peer of France in 1819.

He was elected a member of the French Academy in 1828. Under Louis Philippe he became Amba.s.sador first at Turin and afterwards at St.

Petersburg. After the revolution of 1848 he devoted himself entirely to literature. He wrote many historical and literary studies, and translated the works of Schiller into French. His _Vie politique de Royer-Collard_ has several times been reprinted.

{249a} Duvergier de Hauranne, Prosper (1798-1881), was a distinguished French publicist, born at Rouen. He was parliamentary deputy for Sancerre in 1831 and took part in most of the political struggles of the following twenty years. He was exiled from France at the time of the _Coup d'Etat_, but returned during the reign of Napoleon III. Henceforth he devoted himself exclusively to historical studies. His _Histoire du gouvernement parlementaire en France_, published in 1870, secured his election to the French Academy.

{249b} Madison, James (1751-1836). The fourth President of the United States; born at Port Conway, Virginia. Acted with Jay and Hamilton in the Convention which framed the Const.i.tution and wrote with them _The Federalist_. He had two terms of office--between 1809 and 1817--as President. He died at Montpelier, Virginia. His _Debates of the Congress of Confederation_ was published in Elliot's "Debates on the State Conventions," 4 vols., Philadelphia, 1861.

{249c} Hamilton, Alexander (1757-1804). A great American statesman, who served in Washington's army, and after the war became eminent as a lawyer in New York. He wrote fifty-one out of the eighty-five essays of _The Federalist_. He was appointed Secretary of the Treasury to the United States in 1789. He was mortally wounded in a duel by Aaron Burr in 1804.

His influence upon the American Const.i.tution gives him a great place in the annals of the Republic.

{249d} Calhoun, John Campbell (1782-1850). An American statesman; born in Abbeville County, South Carolina and studied at Yale. As a Member of Congress he supported the war with Great Britain in 1812-15. He was twice Vice-President of the United States. He died at Washington. A _Disquisition on Government_ and a _Discourse on the Const.i.tution and Government of the United States_ were written in the last months of his life. His _Collected Works_ appeared in 1853-4.

{250a} Dumont, Pierre Etienne Louis (1759-1829). A great publicist; born in Geneva, and princ.i.p.ally known in England by his a.s.sociation with Bentham, to whom he acted as an editor and interpreter. Lived much in Paris, St. Petersburg, and, above all, in London, where he knew Fox, Sheridan, and other famous men, and taught the children of Lord Shelburne. Dumont's _Sophismes Anarchiques_ appears in Bentham's _Collected Works_ as _Anarchical Fallacies_.

{250b} Quinet, Edgar (1803-1875). French historian and philosopher; born at Borg and died in Paris. His epic poem of _Ahasuerus_ was placed upon the Index. Of his many books his _La Revolution Francaise_ is the best known. It was written in Switzerland, where he was an exile during the reign of Napoleon III. He returned to France in 1870.

{250c} Stein, Lorenz von (1815-1890). Writer on economics, studied in Kiel and in Jena. In 1855 he became Professor of International Law in Vienna. He wrote books on statecraft and international law. His work ent.i.tled _Der Sozialismus und Kommunismus des heutigen Frankreich_ appeared in Leipzig in 1843.

{251a} La.s.salle, Ferdinand (1825-1864), the famous social democrat, was of Jewish birth; born at Breslau. He took part in the revolution of 1848 and received six months' imprisonment. He was wounded in a duel at Geneva over a love affair and died two days later. His _System der Erworbenen Rechte_ appeared in 1861.

{251b} Thonissen, Jean Joseph (1817-1891). A distinguished jurist; born in Belgium. He studied at Liege and in Paris; became a Professor of the Catholic University of Louvain; afterwards became a Minister of State. Of his many works his _Socialisme depuis l'antiquite jusqu'a la const.i.tution francaise de 1852_ is best known.