INCANDESCENT LAMP.

If you take a piece of very fine iron wire and lay it across the terminals of an acc.u.mulator, it becomes white hot and melts, owing to the heat generated by its resistance to the current. A piece of fine platinum wire would become white hot without melting, and would give out an intense light. Here we have the principle of the glow or incandescent lamp--namely, the interposition in an electric circuit of a conductor which at once offers a high resistance to the current, but is not destroyed by the resulting heat.

In Fig. 80 is shown a fan propelling liquid constantly through a pipe.

Let us a.s.sume that the liquid is one which develops great friction on the inside of the pipe. At the contraction, where the speed of travel is much greater than elsewhere in the circuit, most heat will be produced.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 80.--Diagram to show circulation of water through a pipe.]

In quite the early days of the glow-lamp platinum wire was found to be unreliable as regards melting, and filaments of carbon are now used. To prevent the wasting away of the carbon by combination with oxygen the filament is enclosed in a gla.s.s bulb from which practically all air has been sucked by a mercury pump before sealing.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 81.--The electrical counterpart of Fig. 80. The filament takes the place of the contraction in the pipe.]

The manufacture of glow-lamps is now an important industry. One brand of lamp[20] is made as follows:--First, cotton-wool is dissolved in chloride of zinc, and forms a treacly solution, which is squirted through a fine nozzle into a settling solution which hardens it and makes it coil up like a very fine violin string. After being washed and dried, it is wound on a plumbago rod and baked in a furnace until only the carbon element remains. This is the filament in the rough. It is next removed from the rod and tipped with two short pieces of fine platinum wire. To make the junction electrically perfect the filament is plunged in benzine and heated to whiteness by the pa.s.sage of a strong current, which deposits the carbon of the benzine on the joints. The filament is now placed under the gla.s.s receiver of an air-pump, the air is exhausted, hydro-carbon vapour is introduced, and the filament has a current pa.s.sed through it to make it white hot. Carbon from the vapour is deposited all over the filament until the required electrical resistance is attained. The filament is now ready for enclosure in the bulb. When the bulb has been exhausted and sealed, the lamp is tested, and, if pa.s.sed, goes to the finishing department, where the two platinum wires (projecting through the gla.s.s) are soldered to a couple of bra.s.s plates, which make contact with two terminals in a lamp socket. Finally, bra.s.s caps are affixed with a special water-tight and hard cement.

ARC LAMPS.

In _arc_ lighting, instead of a contraction at a point in the circuit, there is an actual break of very small extent. Suppose that to the ends of the wires leading from a dynamo's terminals we attach two carbon rods, and touch the end of the rods together. The tips become white hot, and if they are separated slightly, atoms of incandescent carbon leap from the positive to the negative rod in a continuous and intensely luminous stream, which is called an _arc_ because the path of the particles is curved. No arc would be formed unless the carbons were first touched to start incandescence. If they are separated too far for the strength of the current to bridge the gap the light will flicker or go out. The arc lamp is therefore provided with a mechanism which, when the current is cut off, causes the carbons to fall together, gradually separates them when it is turned on, and keeps them apart. The principle employed is the effort of a coil through which a current pa.s.ses to draw an iron rod into its centre. Some of the current feeding the lamp is shunted through a coil, into which projects one end of an iron bar connected with one carbon point. A spring normally presses the points together when no current flows. As soon as current circulates through the coil the bar is drawn upwards against the spring.

SERIES AND PARALLEL ARRANGEMENT OF LAMPS.

When current pa.s.ses from one lamp to another, as in Fig. 82, the lamps are said to be in _series_. Should one lamp fail, all in the circuit would go out. But where arc lamps are thus arranged a special mechanism on each lamp "short-circuits" it in case of failure, so that current may pa.s.s uninterruptedly to the next.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 82.--Incandescent lamps connected in "series."]

Fig. 83 shows a number of lamps set _in parallel_. One terminal of each is attached to the positive conductor, the other to the negative conductor. Each lamp therefore forms an independent bridge, and does not affect the efficiency of the rest. _Parallel series_ signifies a combination of the two systems, and would be ill.u.s.trated if, in Fig. 83, two or more lamps were connected in series groups from one conductor to the other. This arrangement is often used in arc lighting.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 83.--Incandescent lamps connected in "parallel."]

CURRENT FOR ELECTRIC LAMPS.

This may be either direct or alternating. The former is commonly used for arc lamps, the latter for incandescent, as it is easily stepped-down from the high-pressure mains for use in a house. Glow-lamps usually take current of 110 or 250 volts pressure.

In arc lamps fed with direct current the tip of the positive carbon has a bowl-shaped depression worn in it, while the negative tip is pointed.

Most of the illumination comes from the inner surface of the bowl, and the positive carbon is therefore placed uppermost to throw the light downwards. An alternating current, of course, affects both carbons in the same manner, and there is no bowl.

The carbons need frequent renewal. A powerful lamp uses about 70 feet of rod in 1,000 hours if the arc is exposed to the air. Some lamps have partly enclosed arcs--that is, are surrounded by globes perforated by a single small hole, which renders combustion very slow, though preventing a vacuum.

ELECTROPLATING.

Electroplating is the art of coating metals with metals by means of electricity. Silver, copper, and nickel are the metals most generally deposited. The article to be coated is suspended in a chemical solution of the metal to be deposited. Fig. 84 shows a very simple plating outfit. A is a battery; B a vessel containing, say, an acidulated solution of sulphate of copper. A spoon, S, hanging in this from a gla.s.s rod, R, is connected with the zinc or negative element, Z, of the battery, and a plate of copper, P, with the positive element, C. Current flows in the direction shown by the arrows, from Z to C, C to P, P to S, S to Z. The copper deposited from the solution on the spoon is replaced by gradual dissolution of the plate, so that the latter serves a double purpose.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 84.--An electroplating outfit.]

In silver plating, P is of silver, and the solution one of cyanide of pota.s.sium and silver salts. Where nickel or silver has to be deposited on iron, the article is often given a preliminary coating of copper, as iron does not make a good junction with either of the first two metals, but has an affinity for copper.

[17] From the Latin _commuto_, "I exchange."

[18] Only the "drum" type of armature is treated here.

[19] This refers to continuous-current dynamos only.

[20] The Robertson.

Chapter X.

RAILWAY BRAKES.

The Vacuum Automatic brake--The Westinghouse air-brake.

In the early days of the railway, the pulling up of a train necessitated the shutting off of steam while the stopping-place was still a great distance away. The train gradually lost its velocity, the process being hastened to a comparatively small degree by the screw-down brakes on the engine and guard's van. The goods train of to-day in many cases still observes this practice, long obsolete in pa.s.senger traffic.

An advance was made when a chain, running along the entire length of the train, was arranged so as to pull on subsidiary chains branching off under each carriage and operating levers connected with brake blocks pressing on every pair of wheels. The guard strained the main chain by means of a wheel gear in his van. This system was, however, radically defective, since, if any one branch chain was shorter than the rest, it alone would get the strain. Furthermore, it is obvious that the snapping of the main chain would render the whole arrangement powerless.

Accordingly, brakes operated by steam were tried. Under every carriage was placed a cylinder, in connection with a main steam-pipe running under the train. When the engineer wished to apply the brakes, he turned high-pressure steam into the train pipe, and the steam, pa.s.sing into the brake cylinders, drove out in each a piston operating the brake gear.

Unfortunately, the steam, during its pa.s.sage along the pipe, was condensed, and in cold weather failed to reach the rear carriages. Water formed in the pipes, and this was liable to freeze. If the train parted accidentally, the apparatus of course broke down.

Hydraulic brakes have been tried; but these are open to several objections; and railway engineers now make use of air-pressure as the most suitable form of power. Whatever air system be adopted, experience has shown that three features are essential:--(1.) The brakes must be kept "off" artificially. (2.) In case of the train parting accidentally, the brakes must be applied automatically, and quickly bring all the vehicles of the train to a standstill. (3.) It must be possible to apply the brakes with greater or less force, according to the needs of the case.

At the present day one or other of two systems is used on practically all automatically-braked cars and coaches. These are known as--(1) The _vacuum automatic_, using the pressure of the atmosphere on a piston from the other side of which air has been mechanically exhausted; and (2) the _Westinghouse automatic_, using compressed air. The action of these brakes will now be explained as simply as possible.

THE VACUUM AUTOMATIC BRAKE.

Under each carriage is a vacuum chamber (Fig. 85) riding on trunnions, E E, so that it may swing a little when the brakes are applied. Inside the chamber is a cylinder, the piston of which is rendered air-tight by a rubber ring rolling between it and the cylinder walls. The piston rod works through an air-tight stuffing-box in the bottom of the casing, and when it rises operates the brake rods. It is obvious that if air is exhausted from both sides of the piston at once, the piston will sink by reason of its own weight and that of its attachments. If air is now admitted below the piston, the latter will be pushed upwards with a maximum pressure of 15 lbs. to the square inch. The ball-valve ensures that while air can be sucked from _both_ sides of the piston, it can be admitted to the lower side only.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 85.--Vacuum brake "off."]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 86.--Vacuum brake "on."]

Let us imagine that a train has been standing in a siding, and that air has gradually filled the vacuum chamber by leakage. The engine is coupled on, and the driver at once turns on the steam ejector,[21]

which sucks all the air out of the pipes and chambers throughout the train. The air is sucked directly from the under side of the piston through pipe D; and from the s.p.a.ce A A and the cylinder (open at the top) through the channel C, lifting the ball, which, as soon as exhaustion is complete, or when the pressure on both sides of the piston is equal, falls back on its seat. On air being admitted to the train pipe, it rushes through D and into the s.p.a.ce B (Fig. 86) below the piston, but is unable to pa.s.s the ball, so that a strong upward pressure is exerted on the piston, and the brakes go on. To throw them off, the s.p.a.ce below the piston must be exhausted. This is to be noted: If there is a leak, as in the case of the train parting, _the brakes go on at once_, since the vacuum below the piston is automatically broken.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 87.--Guard's valve for applying the Vacuum brake.]

For ordinary stops the vacuum is only partially broken--that is, an air-pressure of but from 5 to 10 lbs. per square inch is admitted. For emergency stops full atmospheric pressure is used. In this case it is advisable that air should enter at _both_ ends of the train; so in the guard's van there is installed an ingenious automatic valve, which can at any time be opened by the guard pressing down a lever, but which opens of itself when the train-pipe vacuum is rapidly destroyed. Fig. 87 shows this device in section. Seated on the top of an upright pipe is a valve, _A_, connected by a bolt, B, to an elastic diaphragm, C, sealing the bottom of the chamber D. The bolt B has a very small hole bored through it from end to end. When the vacuum is broken slowly, the pressure falls in D as fast as in the pipe; but a sudden inrush of air causes the valve A to be pulled off its seat by the diaphragm C, as the vacuum in D has not been broken to any appreciable extent. Air then rushes into the train pipe through the valve. It is thus evident that the driver controls this valve as effectively as if it were on the engine. These "emergency" valves are sometimes fitted to every vehicle of a train.

When a carriage is slipped, taps on each side of the coupling joint of the train pipe are turned off by the guard in the "slip;" and when he wishes to stop he merely depresses the lever E, gradually opening the valve. Under the van is an auxiliary vacuum chamber, from which the air is exhausted by the train pipe. If the guard, after the slip has parted from the train, finds that he has applied his brakes too hard, he can put this chamber into communication with the brake cylinder, and restore the vacuum sufficiently to pull the brakes off again.

When a train has come to rest, the brakes must be sucked off by the ejector. Until this has been done the train cannot be moved, so that it is impossible for it to leave the station unprepared to make a sudden stop if necessary.