But a dramatic reconversion occurred. After plunging into his new job with "all the energy at my command," as he put it in his memoirs, "body and soul I was once more a submariner." The reconversion led to a single-minded conviction: that notwithstanding Hitler's grand strategy, war with Great Britain was inevitable and that Germany should be building not big surface ships but submarines-hundreds of submarines.

This conviction derived from a close study of German U-boat records, official and unofficial naval histories of World War I, and his own U-boat experiences. In his view, the small, primitive Imperial Navy U-boat force had come very close to imposing a war-winning maritime blockade against Great Britain. Had Germany built large numbers of U-boats rather than big ships for the High Seas Fleet, and had the Kaiser authorized unrestricted U-boat warfare in the first year of the war, Donitz concluded, Germany could have achieved an early and decisive naval victory over the Allies. With proper organization and planning and modern submarines and new tactics, he believed victory could be realized in the war he saw coming.

To be sure, there would be difficulties and hazards. First, convoys. Convoying saved the Allies from defeat at sea in World War I. This time around the Allies were certain to form convoys in the early days of the war. Second, sonar. The Reichsmarine Reichsmarine knew the Royal Navy had developed an active electronic underwater detection device, which the British believed to be 80 percent effective at locating submarines. Third, aircraft. Reliable, fast, modern airplanes could search huge ocean areas and carry a greater payload of improved ASW bombs and depth charges. knew the Royal Navy had developed an active electronic underwater detection device, which the British believed to be 80 percent effective at locating submarines. Third, aircraft. Reliable, fast, modern airplanes could search huge ocean areas and carry a greater payload of improved ASW bombs and depth charges.

Even so, Donitz believed the submarine could win. This conviction was based on the significant technological advances German engineers and other specialists had achieved in submarine construction, torpedoes, and communications, and on a new tactical doctrine German submariners conceived for attacking convoys.

The new U-boat prototypes were far superior to the U-boats of World War I. Built of a new steel alloy, which was welded rather than riveted, they were tougher and more maneuverable, and dived much faster and deeper. The new medium (500-ton) boat had twice the diesel and electric horsepower of its predecessor, giving it 3 knots greater surface speed (16 versus 13) and the ability to accelerate rapidly to full speed when submerged. The surface cruising range of the new boats could be greatly extended by an ingenious fuel-conservation technique, wherein one of the two diesels could be rigged to turn both propeller shafts.

German engineers had produced what were believed to be marvelous improvements in submarine torpedoes. The warheads were nearly double the size of the World War I model (612 pounds of explosives versus 352 pounds). In addition to the "air"-propelled torpedoes, the Germans had perfected a torpedo propelled by electricity (from storage batteries), which left no telltale wake pointing to the submarine. As another measure to conceal the position of the submarine, the submarine torpedo tubes had been redesigned to absorb the bubbles created by the compressed air used to eject the torpedo. All torpedoes could be fitted with a "magnetic" pistol (or fuse) that was activated by the magnetic field of the target. Designed to explode beneath beneath the keels of the targets rather than against the sides, magnetic torpedoes were deemed to be much more lethal than torpedoes with impact pistols. It was possible that only one magnetic torpedo would be required to sink an enemy ship. the keels of the targets rather than against the sides, magnetic torpedoes were deemed to be much more lethal than torpedoes with impact pistols. It was possible that only one magnetic torpedo would be required to sink an enemy ship.

Radio technology had also greatly improved since the last war. The new U-boat prototypes were equipped with a superb array of receivers and long- and shortwave transmitters. Hence a force commander could maintain clear and continuous contact with all U-boats at sea, and the boats could communicate with one another. This communications linkage enabled a force commander to receive and relay reports on enemy positions, to receive current reports from U-boats on damage inflicted on the enemy or damage sustained and the type and extent of enemy ASW measures, to know the amount of fuel and torpedoes remaining on board each boat at any given time, and to know the current weather and sea conditions in the assigned operating area.

In World War I, U-boats had failed against enemy convoys because they could seldom find them and when a U-boat did find one, it usually had to attack alone. Donitz believed that enemy convoys could now be located by a more sophisticated deployment of U-boats on likely convoy routes, by Luftwaffe Luftwaffe aerial reconnaissance, and by intelligence on enemy convoy routing derived from codebreaking, spies, and other sources. Upon receiving information on the composition, course, and speed of a convoy, Donitz postulated, a force commander could in theory shift the available U-boats by radio to positions to intercept the convoy for a massed or group attack, which the confused escorts would be virtually powerless to prevent. aerial reconnaissance, and by intelligence on enemy convoy routing derived from codebreaking, spies, and other sources. Upon receiving information on the composition, course, and speed of a convoy, Donitz postulated, a force commander could in theory shift the available U-boats by radio to positions to intercept the convoy for a massed or group attack, which the confused escorts would be virtually powerless to prevent.

The group (or "wolf pack") attacks could be carried out either in daytime while submerged or at night while on the surface. To minimize detection in submerged daylight attacks, the U-boats were to employ only wakeless battery-powered ("electric") torpedoes, with magnetic pistols in the warheads. In night surface attacks, when torpedo wakes were harder to see, the faster, longer-range "air" torpedoes with magnetic pistols were to be used.

Donitz thought the new ASW weapons, namely sonar and aircraft, were greatly overrated. The most advanced sonar still had serious technical weaknesses, a range of one to one and a half miles at most, and-most important-it could not detect a submarine on the surface. The electric torpedoes had a greater range (three miles) than sonar. Hence, in the initial daylight submerged attack, a U-boat could "stand off' and shoot before there was any possibility of being detected by enemy sonar. Should a hunting escort make sonar contact with the submerged U-boat after the attack, the U-boat could evade and escape with its rapid acceleration and deep diving. Aircraft could not usually see a submerged submarine or its periscope in most waters and thus posed small to no danger to a U-boat using wakeless torpedoes during a submerged daylight attack. Aircraft did not yet patrol at night; hence none would be present during a night surface attack. The principal danger posed by an aircraft was its ability to detect a submarine traveling on the surface in daylight. But aircraft were still relatively slow. A keenly alert U-boat bridge watch, Donitz believed, could see or hear the aircraft before it saw the U-boat. With its ability to dive quickly (thirty seconds) and deep, a properly alert modern U-boat could avoid attack by any known aircraft.

To win the commerce war, Donitz calculated, Germany would require a force of about 300 medium (500-ton) U-boats. Counting time lost going to and from the combat zone and time lost in refit and overhaul, this number would enable Germany to keep about 100 U-boats in the convoy hunting grounds. Based on the results achieved by the U-boats of World War I, Donitz calculated, a force of modern boats could doubtless sink a million tons of British shipping a month. The British merchant marine of the late 1930s comprised about 3,000 ships of 17.5 million tons, including tankers. Thus, in a mere six months, U-boats could destroy almost one-third of it, and within a year, almost two-thirds. It therefore appeared reasonable to Donitz that a modern German U-boat force could throttle the British in a year or a year and a half.

Early in his new job, Donitz informally submitted these ideas to Raeder and to the Berlin naval staff, the Oberkommando Oberkommando der der Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine (OKM). He was sternly rebuffed. Hitler had assured Raeder, time and again, that war with Great Britain was unthinkable. As historian Ruge wrote, war games with Great Britain as the enemy were prohibited. The Anglo-German Naval Treaty-Hitler's great diplomatic triumph-had just been signed. Under the terms of that agreement Germany was restricted, except in unusual circumstances that required renegotiations, to about 24,000 tons of submarines. By then most of the permitted tonnage had already been allocated. Even if it had not been, the entire allowance would produce merely forty-eight medium (500-ton) boats. Besides that, Germany had agreed to sign the Submarine Protocol, which barred surprise attacks on almost all merchant ships. Moreover, many senior officers at the OKM were unshakably convinced that sonar and modern aircraft had ruled out the possibility of submarine warfare in the hunting grounds close to the British Isles. They had proposed larger submarines for operations in distant waters where enemy ASW measures were less intense. These boats were to raid enemy (i.e., French) maritime assets, in a manner similar to the "pocket" battleships and armed merchant cruisers, adhering to the "cruiser rules" and the Submarine Protocol. (OKM). He was sternly rebuffed. Hitler had assured Raeder, time and again, that war with Great Britain was unthinkable. As historian Ruge wrote, war games with Great Britain as the enemy were prohibited. The Anglo-German Naval Treaty-Hitler's great diplomatic triumph-had just been signed. Under the terms of that agreement Germany was restricted, except in unusual circumstances that required renegotiations, to about 24,000 tons of submarines. By then most of the permitted tonnage had already been allocated. Even if it had not been, the entire allowance would produce merely forty-eight medium (500-ton) boats. Besides that, Germany had agreed to sign the Submarine Protocol, which barred surprise attacks on almost all merchant ships. Moreover, many senior officers at the OKM were unshakably convinced that sonar and modern aircraft had ruled out the possibility of submarine warfare in the hunting grounds close to the British Isles. They had proposed larger submarines for operations in distant waters where enemy ASW measures were less intense. These boats were to raid enemy (i.e., French) maritime assets, in a manner similar to the "pocket" battleships and armed merchant cruisers, adhering to the "cruiser rules" and the Submarine Protocol.

Donitz was neither discouraged nor dissuaded. He remained absolutely convinced that sooner or later Hitler would provoke war with Great Britain; that it was a grave mistake for the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine to build big surface ships; that the Anglo-German Naval Treaty, the submarine tonnage limitations, and the Submarine Protocol would be abrogated; and that Germany would be compelled for the second time to turn to U-boats for waging war at sea. He therefore did everything in his power to shape the training, weaponry, and operational planning of the new U-boat force to fit his convictions. to build big surface ships; that the Anglo-German Naval Treaty, the submarine tonnage limitations, and the Submarine Protocol would be abrogated; and that Germany would be compelled for the second time to turn to U-boats for waging war at sea. He therefore did everything in his power to shape the training, weaponry, and operational planning of the new U-boat force to fit his convictions.

TO THE E EVE OF W WAR.

In 1936, when the five-power London Naval Treaty expired, there was no chance of a renewal. Japan had walked out of the League of Nations, occupied Manchuria, and had already embarked on a naval buildup in excess of treaty limits. Italy had occupied Abyssinia (Ethiopia), intervened in the Spanish Civil War on the side of fascist general Francisco Franco, and had made plans for a substantial naval buildup, which had provoked the French to follow suit. Although Great Britain and the United States agreed in principle to certain naval limitations, they were not binding, and each nation went its own way. Thus the remarkable era of naval arms limitation among the major naval powers expired.

That same year, 1936, the Fuhrer of the Third Reich, Adolf Hitler, commenced military operations. Goose-stepping Wehrmacht Wehrmacht forces reclaimed the Rhineland in March. Later in the year Hitler joined Mussolini in support of Franco, sending forces reclaimed the Rhineland in March. Later in the year Hitler joined Mussolini in support of Franco, sending Luftwaffe Luftwaffe and tank ( and tank (panzer) units to Spain. But Hitler continued to seek amicable relations with the appeasing British government. As a consequence, the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine strictly adhered to the terms of the Anglo-German Naval Treaty and courted the Royal Navy by ceremonial ship visits, sailing regattas, and other means. strictly adhered to the terms of the Anglo-German Naval Treaty and courted the Royal Navy by ceremonial ship visits, sailing regattas, and other means.

The treaty allowed the Germans to build 24,000 tons of submarines. In 1935 the OKM expended half that allowance (12,500 tons) to order thirty-six U-boats based on the IVS Finnish and Spanish prototypes.* Since the plans had already been drawn and the prototypes tested in Finland and Spain, and some materiel pre-assembled, these thirty-six boats were built quickly and commissioned in 1935 and 1936, except one Type VII, Since the plans had already been drawn and the prototypes tested in Finland and Spain, and some materiel pre-assembled, these thirty-six boats were built quickly and commissioned in 1935 and 1936, except one Type VII, U-32 U-32, which was delayed to 1937.

A bitter dispute arose over how to expend the remaining 11,500 tons allowed by the treaty. In support of his conviction that war with Great Britain was inevitable and that groups, or wolf packs, of U-boats would be required to defeat the convoy system, Donitz urged that the full 11,500 tons be allocated for the construction of twenty-three improved Type VII medium (500-ton) boats, so that he could war-game his ideas and train his men. In opposition, the OKM proposed twenty-three boats of a different mix: eight more improved small Type lis, eight more large, long-range submarines (improved versions of the Type I, designated Type IX), and seven improved Type VII mediums. After months of procrastination, Raeder sided with the OKM.

This decision was a major setback for Donitz and his fledgling U-boat arm. Berlin had rejected his convictions and theories about war with Great Britain. The procrastination entailed in reaching the decision and the emphasis on the large Type IXs, which took much longer to construct, delayed the buildup of the U-boat arm. No U-boats of the second order were to be commissioned in 1937 and only nine in 1938 and twelve in the first eight months of 1939. That he had failed to persuade Raeder and the OKM to adopt his theories and concepts-and submarine types-was to haunt Donitz for the rest of his life.

The first small Type II U-boats, U-1 U-1 to to U-12 U-12, were commissioned in the summer of 1935. The first six of these were assigned to the submarine school in Kiel for basic training. The second six, improved Type IIBs of greater range, formed the nucleus of an organized flotilla for advanced training, also based in Kiel. Commanded by Donitz, the flotilla was named in honor of a renowned submarine hero of the Imperial Navy, Otto Weddigen, who had sunk four British cruisers before being killed in action. Donitz formally commissioned the Weddigen Flotilla on September 25, 1935.

The skippers of the Weddigen Flotilla were handpicked senior lieutenants averaging about twenty-eight years in age with about ten years' service in the German Navy.* Some had trained on the secret IVS prototypes in Finland and Spain; some had trained on the IVS boats in Turkey. All were recent graduates of or instructors from the submarine school. It was a small, tight group, a navy within a navy. Everyone knew everybody intimately. Two skippers, Hans-Gunther Looff ( Some had trained on the secret IVS prototypes in Finland and Spain; some had trained on the IVS boats in Turkey. All were recent graduates of or instructors from the submarine school. It was a small, tight group, a navy within a navy. Everyone knew everybody intimately. Two skippers, Hans-Gunther Looff (U-9) and Hans-Rudolf Rosing (U-11), were married to sisters. All the men shared Donitz's convictions that war with Great Britain was inevitable and that U-boats were to bear the burden of waging the naval war.

The Weddigen Flotilla commenced sea training on October 1, 1935, flying the new flag of the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine, the black and red swastika. Six more Type IIBs-which the Germans half-jokingly called "dugout canoes" or "ducks"-joined the flotilla over the next three months, making a total of twelve. Under the direction of Donitz and his flotilla engineer and right arm, Otto ("Pappa") Thedsen, a fifty-year-old salt who had risen from the enlisted ranks of the Imperial Navy, the crews trained with a sense of urgency. The OKM had decreed that the flotilla must be "war ready" by March 1936, to support Hitler's reoccupation of the Rhineland, possibly provoking a war with France, which had allied not only with Poland but also with the Soviet Union, posing the possibility of a two-front naval war in the Baltic Sea.

Donitz went to sea daily on one duck or the other. He was a demanding but fair and forgiving instructor. In contrast to customs in the Imperial Navy, he encouraged camaraderie between officers and enlisted men, a "democratic" navy, where one and all shared the same food, work, hazards, and hardships. Confined inside the little boats every day, Donitz got to know his men well and they him. He was a charismatic leader. The men, who called him "The Lion," idolized him for his obvious competence and for the respect and concern he showed for them.

Donitz put the ducks through a variety of drills but the main emphasis was on torpedo shooting. Every duck in the flotilla was required to carry out sixty-six daylight submerged and sixty-six night surface attacks, in which "water slugs" (shots of compressed air) were fired in place of training torpedoes. These drills were tough on all hands, but especially so on the captains. They had to plan and conduct the approaches on the target ships by day and night, taking into account winds, seas, currents, visibility, water depth, phases of the moon, and other factors, meanwhile estimating the target course and speed and calculating the proper interception course and speed for the U-boat. They were encouraged to develop a kind of sixth sense about whether or not they could be-or had been-spotted by aircraft or surface ships and therefore when to surface or submerge, when to use and when not to use the periscope, and the most effective tactics for evading pursuers submerged. After these 132 simulated attacks, the boats graduated to fire real torpedoes with dummy warheads, set to run deep beneath the target ships.

PLATE 3 3.

During these torpedo drills, Donitz developed new shooting procedures which were to become standard on all U-boats. In submerged daylight attacks the captain, who had sole access to the attack periscope, conducted the approach, assisted by the first watch officer at a plotting board, then aimed and fired the torpedoes. In the night surface attack, the captain conducted the approach at the plotting board in the control room, but he did not fire the torpedoes. That task was delegated to the first watch officer on the bridge, using high-power Zeiss binoculars mounted on a gyroscope compass repeater. It was a more efficient system, but not many captains willingly delegated the torpedo firing to the first watch officer. No other navy adopted this technique.

The little boats were at sea five days a week, twenty-four hours a day. The routine was exhausting. Some days they conducted as many as eight submerged daylight attacks and six night surface attacks. As one skipper remembered, fourteen attacks in twenty-four hours was "the upper limit of our physical and nervous capacity."

The ducks had strong, welded steel hulls, capable (on paper) of withstanding sea pressure to a maximum depth of about 500 feet. One way to outfox enemy sonar was to shut down all unnecessary machinery and dive to maximum depth ("run silent, run deep"). Donitz encouraged deep-diving drills, but a near-disaster on U-12 U-12, commanded by Werner von Schmidt, put a damper on these maneuvers. At 341 feet, an internal angle-bar joint failed, the hull cracked, and the boat flooded dangerously. The boat was saved and the hull was later reinforced, as were the hulls of the other ducks, but as a result of the accident, the OKM restricted all U-boats to a maximum diving depth of 150 feet. Inasmuch as Donitz believed deep diving would be a necessary routine in wartime and should be rehearsed to the extent that it caused no anxiety, he pleaded for cancellation of the order, but his arguments were rejected. In his memoir, he commented bitterly: "For the lessons which one fails to learn in peace, one pays a high price in war."

PLATE 4 4.

When the Wehrmacht Wehrmacht marched into the Rhineland on March 7, 1936, twelve boats of the Weddigen Flotilla-as well as the six Type lis at the submarine school-deployed for possible naval war with Poland, France, or the Soviet Union in the North and Baltic seas. In a sense, the war deployment constituted a "graduation" exercise for the flotilla. All boats "passed" with high marks. Donitz drew a rave review from a superior: "Through indefatigable work and personal instruction he has demanded so much from the 'U-Flotilla Weddigen' in planned training that already ... they are ready for employment on war tasks." marched into the Rhineland on March 7, 1936, twelve boats of the Weddigen Flotilla-as well as the six Type lis at the submarine school-deployed for possible naval war with Poland, France, or the Soviet Union in the North and Baltic seas. In a sense, the war deployment constituted a "graduation" exercise for the flotilla. All boats "passed" with high marks. Donitz drew a rave review from a superior: "Through indefatigable work and personal instruction he has demanded so much from the 'U-Flotilla Weddigen' in planned training that already ... they are ready for employment on war tasks."

Later in the year 1936, the other six ducks and the bigger boats were commissioned: the two large, 750-ton Type Is, U-25 U-25 and and U-26 U-26, and nine of the ten 500-ton Type VII mediums, U-27 U-27 to to U-36 U-36. Notwithstanding all the work in Spain on the IVS prototype, E-1 E-1, the large boats, U-25 U-25 and and U-26 U-26, turned out to have many design flaws. They were dangerously unstable, slow in diving, difficult to maneuver, and easy to detect and hold on sonar. Both were therefore declared unsuitable for combat and relegated to experimental status or used for propaganda purposes, such as showing the swastika in Spanish waters in company with other Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine warships. The nine Type VII mediums, which also had serious design and mechanical flaws and proved to be voracious fuel hogs, were organized into a second combat flotilla, named in honor of another Imperial Navy submarine hero, ReinhoW Salzwedel. The Salzwedel skippers-from the crews of 1924 to 1926-were former skippers or senior watch officers on the ducks of the Weddigen Flotilla. warships. The nine Type VII mediums, which also had serious design and mechanical flaws and proved to be voracious fuel hogs, were organized into a second combat flotilla, named in honor of another Imperial Navy submarine hero, ReinhoW Salzwedel. The Salzwedel skippers-from the crews of 1924 to 1926-were former skippers or senior watch officers on the ducks of the Weddigen Flotilla.

With all these new boats, the OKM reorganized the U-boat force. The eighteen ducks were divided into two flotillas, Weddigen and a new one, named in honor of another Imperial Navy submarine hero, Johannes Lohs. Promoted to Fuhrerdes U-boote Fuhrerdes U-boote (Commander, U-boats, abbreviated as FdU), Donitz commanded all three flotillas, which comprised twenty-eight production boats (eighteen ducks, ten Type VIIs), as well as the experimental showboats (Commander, U-boats, abbreviated as FdU), Donitz commanded all three flotillas, which comprised twenty-eight production boats (eighteen ducks, ten Type VIIs), as well as the experimental showboats U-25 U-25 and and U-26 U-26. The FdU senior staff was kept small: Donitz; his chief engineer, "Pappa" Thedsen; a smart, newly recruited planner and tactician, Eberhard Godt, from the crew of 1918; and a few others.

After the Salzwedel boats had completed workup and torpedo training, Donitz initiated the first experiments with coordinated group (or "wolf pack") attacks against simulated "enemy" convoys in the Baltic Sea. He directed these exercises from a command ship equipped with a superb array of radio transmitters and receivers. He formed the boats into "patrol lines" to intercept convoys. When a boat found and reported the convoy, he directed the others to mass and attack. Although these war games were rigged to favor the U-boats, Donitz was well satisfied with the outcome and more than ever convinced he was on the right track.

There were many difficulties to be worked out. The most urgent was to find a way to add fuel-storage capacity, or bunkerage, to the Type VII. The engineer Thedsen, Donitz remembered, provided the solution. He designed external "saddle" tanks that could be wrapped around the hulls amidships. These tanks increased the fuel storage capacity of the Type VII (from 67 tons to 108 tons). Nothing could be done about the first ten Type VIIs, but the extra tanks were incorporated in the seven Type VIIs of the second order (U-45 to to U-51 U-51), which were designated Type VIIB.

In midsummer 1937, Great Britain, in conformance with the terms of the Anglo-German Naval Treaty, notified Germany that it intended to increase its submarine force by 17,300 tons-from 52,700 tons to 70,000 tons. Still adhering strictly to the treaty, which limited Germany to 45 percent of the British submarine tonnage, the increase allowed Germany to increase its U-boat force by 7,785 tons. This dividend provoked another bitter dispute between Donitz and the OKM. Donitz again urged that all the new tonnage go for improved 500-ton mediums (Type VIIBs). The OKM again urged that the tonnage go for improved 750-ton large boats, the Type IXB. Raeder again ruled against Donitz. He split the tonnage almost evenly between medium and large boats, ordering eight Type VIIBs (of 4,000 tons) and five IXBs (of 3,750 tons). Including this third order, after all the boats had been commissioned, the U-boat force was to be comprised of seventy-two boats aggregating 31,750 tons: thirty-two ducks, twenty-five medium Type VIIs, thirteen large Type IXs, plus the two large duds, U-25 U-25 and and U-26 U-26.

When Hitler commenced the rape of Europe in 1938, the embryonic U-boat arm deployed for war on three occasions: during the annexation (Anschluss) of Austria in March; the abortive attempt to absorb the Sudetenland area of Czechoslovakia in May; and the Munich Crisis of September, when Hitler gained the Sudetenland by diplomacy. On all three occasions, all thirty-six commissioned boats-including the six ducks at the submarine school-loaded war stores and sailed to predes-ignated stations in the North and Baltic seas, under Donitz's command, to fight a naval war with an array of potential enemies: France, Poland, the Soviet Union, and possibly even Great Britain. It was realistic training for the crews, but the exercises left no doubt that the U-boat arm was absurdly inadequate, both in size and weaponry, for the tasks envisioned.

In late May of 1938, after Hitler had been rebuffed and humiliated in his first attempt to absorb the Sudetenland, he summoned Raeder to the Reichs Chancellery and presented him with astounding news. Reversing all previous directives, Hitler informed Raeder that the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine must now consider "the possibility" of Great Britain as a naval opponent. Hitler would continue to court the appeasing British government, seeking to cement the friendship, but at the same time, he wanted Raeder to lay firm plans for a huge naval buildup, to include "big warships" for "political purposes"-that is, "symbols of power" that were to "influence England not to join the other side in case of any political difficulties arising between us and any other nation." Hitler also wanted more U-boats. He would invoke the escape clause in the Anglo-German Naval Treaty, which, under certain circumstances, allowed Germany parity with Great Britain in submarines-a planned 70,000 tons. must now consider "the possibility" of Great Britain as a naval opponent. Hitler would continue to court the appeasing British government, seeking to cement the friendship, but at the same time, he wanted Raeder to lay firm plans for a huge naval buildup, to include "big warships" for "political purposes"-that is, "symbols of power" that were to "influence England not to join the other side in case of any political difficulties arising between us and any other nation." Hitler also wanted more U-boats. He would invoke the escape clause in the Anglo-German Naval Treaty, which, under certain circumstances, allowed Germany parity with Great Britain in submarines-a planned 70,000 tons.

Raeder assumed that Hitler intended to promptly invoke the submarine escape clause, but owing to the tense political situation that developed in the Munich Crisis, Hitler deferred naval negotiations. Nonetheless Raeder-in technical violation of the treaty-proceeded with plans to order thirty-six more U-boats, comprising 25,250 tons. Again Donitz and the OKM locked horns over tonnage allocation, and again Raeder ruled against Donitz. The final order included nine Type IXs (for 6,750 tons), two very large Type XB minelayers (for 3,600 tons), two huge Type XI "U-cruisers" mounting four 5" guns in two turrets (for 6,000 tons), and seventeen Type VIIs (for 8,500 tons). The Type VIIs, which Donitz urgently needed, comprised only 34 percent of the total new tonnage.

That year-1938-Donitz received nine newly commissioned boats. These included the first of the Type VIIBs with the "saddle" fuel tanks, U-45 U-45; the first of the large Type IXs, U-37 U-37; and the first of the improved ducks, U-56 U-56 and and U-57 U-57, designated Type IIC. These, and the sister ships to come, were assigned to three new flotillas, named for Imperial Navy submarine heroes: Bernhardt Wegener, Paul Hundius, and Hans Joachim Emsmann. The VIIBs were to form the Wegener Flotilla, the IXs the Hundius Flotilla, and the IICs the Emsmann Flotilla.

Meanwhile, in the last days of 1938, the OKM finalized plans for expansion of the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine. Known as the Ziel Ziel (Target) Plan, or Z Plan, it was an admiral's dream. It recommended a surface ship force of seventeen capital vessels (six super-battleships of 72,000 tons each, four large battleships, four aircraft carriers, three battle cruisers), three "pocket" battleships, five heavy cruisers, forty-eight light cruisers, sixty-eight destroyers, ninety motor torpedo boats, numerous minelayers and minesweepers, and a host of auxiliaries and small craft. When completed in 1948, the (Target) Plan, or Z Plan, it was an admiral's dream. It recommended a surface ship force of seventeen capital vessels (six super-battleships of 72,000 tons each, four large battleships, four aircraft carriers, three battle cruisers), three "pocket" battleships, five heavy cruisers, forty-eight light cruisers, sixty-eight destroyers, ninety motor torpedo boats, numerous minelayers and minesweepers, and a host of auxiliaries and small craft. When completed in 1948, the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine was to comprise over one million tons of surface warships. was to comprise over one million tons of surface warships.

The Z Plan also included a plentitude of U-boats-a total of 249, comprising about 200,000 tons. But the proposed mix was another sharp defeat for Donitz, who had not been consulted. The OKM recommended sixty small Type lis, twenty-seven huge "U-cruisers" and minelayers, sixty-two large Type IXs, but only 100 medium Type VIIs. If this mix was approved, it meant that 75 percent of the submarine force (150,000 tons) would be composed of U-boats Donitz did not deem desirable, leaving only 25 percent (50,000 tons) for the 500-ton medium Type VIIs he considered to be most effective for his evolving doctrine.

Donitz did his utmost to modify the Z Plan to fit his concepts. He wrote a monograph, Die U-bootswaffe Die U-bootswaffe ( (The U-boat Arm), propagandizing for U-boats. For security reasons he did not describe his "wolf pack" concept, but he advocated a "trade war" by U-boats and stressed the advantages of the night surface attack, doubtless to counter the views at the OKM that U-boats were highly vulnerable to sonar and aircraft attacks and were therefore of limited utility and value in British waters.* He also enlisted the political help of the biggest gun at hand: fleet commander Hermann Boehm, who advised the OKM that in a naval war with Great Britain he would rank U-boats and mines at the top of a list of desirable weapons. When Raeder presented the Z Plan to Hitler, the Fuhrer approved it without change, but with one stipulation. Hitler demanded that the force envisioned be completed not by 1948 but by 1945. To assure that this deadline could be met, Hitler guaranteed Raeder that the He also enlisted the political help of the biggest gun at hand: fleet commander Hermann Boehm, who advised the OKM that in a naval war with Great Britain he would rank U-boats and mines at the top of a list of desirable weapons. When Raeder presented the Z Plan to Hitler, the Fuhrer approved it without change, but with one stipulation. Hitler demanded that the force envisioned be completed not by 1948 but by 1945. To assure that this deadline could be met, Hitler guaranteed Raeder that the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine was to have "priority over programs of the other services." was to have "priority over programs of the other services."

The adoption of the Z Plan was a flagrant violation of the spirit and terms of the Anglo-German Naval Treaty. It was to be kept secret until Hitler could devise a politically expedient way to abrogate the treaty and blame the break on the British. Meanwhile, Berlin would pretend to adhere to the treaty. As a part of that pretense, on December 12, 1938, the Foreign Minister, Joachim von Ribbentrop, belatedly invoked the submarine escape clause, which legally permitted Germany to build to parity with Great Britain, or 70,000 tons of U-boats. This move came as a nasty shock to the Admiralty, but the British government accepted the declaration without objection.

A month later, in January 1939, Raeder ordered another sixteen new U-boats, comprising about 13,000 tons. These additions were to bring the U-boat arm to parity with the British by 1942-118 boats comprising 70,000 tons. Again Donitz lost the debate on type allocation. Raeder directed that about half the new tonnage (6,500 tons) be assigned to build another very large Type XB minelayer and two more huge Type XI U-cruisers. The other half of the tonnage was assigned for Type VIIs. This was the last U-boat order placed in compliance with the submarine tonnage limits of the Anglo-German Naval Treaty. When these orders had been fulfilled in 1942, the U-boat arm was to consist of the following types and tonnages: This mix was, of course, far from satisfactory to Donitz. The Type VII, which he desired above all others, still comprised only 39 percent of the total tonnage. Moreover, the total number of VIIs-fifty-five-to be completed by 1942 was less than one-fifth the number he deemed necessary for a decisive attack on the British merchant marine.

Abrogating the agreements reached with Great Britain and France at Munich, in March 1939, Hitler occupied the rest of Czechoslovakia by bluff and political intrigue and rode triumphantly into Prague. That outrage overshadowed another Nazi conquest a week later when the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine reclaimed Memel, Lithuania, for Germany in another bloodless operation. As Hitler had correctly foreseen, neither France nor Great Britain lifted a finger to assist Czechoslovakia. reclaimed Memel, Lithuania, for Germany in another bloodless operation. As Hitler had correctly foreseen, neither France nor Great Britain lifted a finger to assist Czechoslovakia.

Having flanked Poland, Hitler intended to absorb that nation by bluff and intrigue as well. Should those methods fail, he advised his military chiefs, the Wehrmacht Wehrmacht, Luftwaffe Luftwaffe, and Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine should be prepared to seize Poland by military force, no later than September 1, 1939. should be prepared to seize Poland by military force, no later than September 1, 1939.

The Nazi rape of Czechoslovakia produced an unexpected reaction among the citizens of Great Britain. They rose up in fury and demanded that the chief appeaser, Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, draw a line on Hitler's aggression. Confronted with this public outrage and the possibility of his ouster, Chamberlain was compelled to declare that should France honor its long-standing mutual defense treaty with Poland, Great Britain would support France.

Hitler seized upon the Anglo-French guarantees to Poland as a pretext for abrogating the Anglo-German Naval Treaty. He did so publicly, in a sarcastic speech to the Reichstag Reichstag on April 28. Soon thereafter the on April 28. Soon thereafter the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine laid the keels for the two super-battleships, laid the keels for the two super-battleships, Bismarck Bismarck and and Tirpitz Tirpitz. Despite these provocations and the public indignation and the stepped-up military preparations in Great Britain, Hitler continued to assert to his Nazi cohorts that neither Great Britain nor France would fight for Poland. Believing Hitler would pull another political rabbit out of his hat, Raeder naively-and irresponsibly-assured the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine that there would be no war with Great Britain. that there would be no war with Great Britain.

Donitz was more convinced than ever that the opposite was the case. He believed that the "high state of tension" which Hitler had created between Great Britain and Germany could explode "into actual hostilities at any moment." He therefore pleaded with Raeder and the OKM to approve a rapid increase in U-boat orders, with a major emphasis on Type VIIs, and to authorize theretofore prohibited U-boat exercises in the Atlantic Ocean. He got nowhere with his pleas for an increase in U-boat orders-the available shipyards were already jammed-but Raeder did permit the Atlantic exercises.

These exercises culminated in May 1939 with group or "wolf pack" attacks against a simulated convoy, composed of some Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine vessels assigned to the annual fleet cruise to Lisbon and the western Mediterranean. A total of fifteen VIIs and IXs from the Salzwedel, Wegener, and Hundius flotillas participated. The "convoy" consisted of four German surface ships: a tanker, a freighter, Donitz's "command ship," vessels assigned to the annual fleet cruise to Lisbon and the western Mediterranean. A total of fifteen VIIs and IXs from the Salzwedel, Wegener, and Hundius flotillas participated. The "convoy" consisted of four German surface ships: a tanker, a freighter, Donitz's "command ship," Erwin Wassner Erwin Wassner, and the Flotilla Salzwedel tender, Saar Saar-the latter two vessels alternating as targets and defending escorts.

The fifteen U-boats deployed in five packs of three boats along a patrol line several hundred miles long. One pack quickly "found" the "convoy" and radioed a contact report to the other boats. In spite of clever evasive and defensive measures by the convoy-and extremely foul weather-the other boats converged on the target and attacked it relentlessly for over forty-eight hours, May 12 to 14. At the end of the exercise, thirteen of the fifteen boats converged for the final "kill."

The exercise was wholly artificial and weighted to favor the U-boats. There were serious lapses in communications and tracking and gross errors in position reporting. Nonetheless, Donitz could not have been more pleased. In a lengthy after-action critique, he concluded that the "principle of fighting a convoy of several steamers with several U-boats" was "correct" and that "the convoy would have been destroyed." His group or "wolf pack" concept was therefore a sound one for defeating Great Britain; he renewed his pleas to Raeder for a step-up in the construction of Type VIIs.

Absorbed in the grandiose Z Plan, the OKM emphatically disagreed with Donitz. The senior submarine planner at the OKM, Werner Furbringer, a rear admiral and an assistant to Raeder's chief of staff, Otto Schniewind, framed the response. "At the present moment," Furbringer wrote, "U-boat blockade of England has very little prospect of success for Germany. Any contradictory opinion, which takes comfort in the large number of our U-boats or in the idea that the English U-boat defense will not be effective far out in the Atlantic, can be dismissed as misleading" and, furthermore, it would be "irresponsible to commit the valuable U-boat crews" to such a war. "It can be taken as proven," Furbringer went on, "that every English convoy, no matter whether it operates along the coast or on the high seas, will be secured by defensive forces, fully capable of destroying with certainty any attacking U-boat, even under the surface." In support of has argument, Furbringer stressed the effectiveness of British sonar and predicted that the British would again resort to defensive minefields, which had been so deadly effective against U-boats in World War I. Until U-boats could be made "sonar-immune," it was pointless to even consider starting a U-boat campaign against British commerce.

The Furbringer paper dismayed and enraged Donitz. In response he drafted a reply for Furbringer's superior, Otto Schniewind, vigorously rebutting Furbringer's arguments point by point. Going a step beyond-a large and career-risking step-he communicated his arguments directly and emphatically to Raeder, and asked that Raeder in turn place his views "before Hitler." Hitler's response, relayed to Donitz through Raeder, was, as Donitz remembered it, that "he would ensure that in no circumstances would war with Great Britain come about. For that would mean finis Germaniae finis Germaniae. The officers of the U-boat arm had no cause to worry."

* The Admiralty law entailed was very complex and much influenced by the practice of privateering, which had been abolished by the Declaration of Paris in 1856. The Admiralty law entailed was very complex and much influenced by the practice of privateering, which had been abolished by the Declaration of Paris in 1856.

The codes had been legally defined and adopted by the major naval powers at the International Peace Conference at The Hague in 1899, and reaffirmed at the second such Hague conference in 1907. Hence the codes were known as "The Hague Conventions." The codes had been legally defined and adopted by the major naval powers at the International Peace Conference at The Hague in 1899, and reaffirmed at the second such Hague conference in 1907. Hence the codes were known as "The Hague Conventions."

* The "First Lord" of the Admiralty, a civilian, was a political appointee, comparable to the Secretary of the Navy in the United States. The "First Sea Lord," an admiral, was the uniformed naval chief. The "First Lord" of the Admiralty, a civilian, was a political appointee, comparable to the Secretary of the Navy in the United States. The "First Sea Lord," an admiral, was the uniformed naval chief.

* Total figures vary by source. Generally speaking, in this period the U-boats sank about 1,000 ships for about 2 million gross tons. Total figures vary by source. Generally speaking, in this period the U-boats sank about 1,000 ships for about 2 million gross tons.

* Strictly speaking, the convoy sailed from Hampton Roads, Virginia, an expansive anchorage at Norfolk. Here and below, "Norfolk" is used freely to designate Hampton Roads. Strictly speaking, the convoy sailed from Hampton Roads, Virginia, an expansive anchorage at Norfolk. Here and below, "Norfolk" is used freely to designate Hampton Roads.

* Ramming, gunfire, depth charges, etc. Ramming, gunfire, depth charges, etc.

Stranding, German mines, own U-boats, etc. Stranding, German mines, own U-boats, etc.

* Quoted in Tarrant (1989). Quoted in Tarrant (1989).

* Any vessel of 10,000 tons or more armed with guns larger than 8". Any vessel of 10,000 tons or more armed with guns larger than 8".

Britain was allowed an extra 100,000 tons to compensate for the age and certain shortcomings in her capital ships. Britain was allowed an extra 100,000 tons to compensate for the age and certain shortcomings in her capital ships.

Any cruiser larger or more heavily gunned was to be considered a capital ship. Any cruiser larger or more heavily gunned was to be considered a capital ship.

* For greater detail on American and British destroyer programs, see appendices 9 and 12. For greater detail on American and British destroyer programs, see appendices 9 and 12.

* The United States scrapped thirty-two ineffective prewar or wartime boats, reducing its total force to about eighty submarines, the majority (fifty-one) of these the inferior S class. Great Britain retained about fifty submarines in commission, twenty of them fairly new. Japan retained about sixty boats, about twenty of them fairly new. The treaty contained a special exemption to the 2,000-ton and 5.1" gun limitations in order that the United States could keep three new 2,800-ton boats: The United States scrapped thirty-two ineffective prewar or wartime boats, reducing its total force to about eighty submarines, the majority (fifty-one) of these the inferior S class. Great Britain retained about fifty submarines in commission, twenty of them fairly new. Japan retained about sixty boats, about twenty of them fairly new. The treaty contained a special exemption to the 2,000-ton and 5.1" gun limitations in order that the United States could keep three new 2,800-ton boats: Narwhal Narwhal, Nautilus Nautilus, and Argonaut Argonaut, mounting 6" guns. A similar exemption allowed Britain to keep its X-I X-I, with 5.2" guns and France to keep the 3,000-ton Surcouf Surcouf, with 8" guns.

In the years 1930-1932, France ordered twenty new submarines, for a total of about eighty; Italy, twenty-six, for a total of about fifty-six. In the years 1930-1932, France ordered twenty new submarines, for a total of about eighty; Italy, twenty-six, for a total of about fifty-six.

And later by ten other nations: Germany, Belgium, Russia, Haiti, Nepal, Sweden, Finland, Panama, Bulgaria, and Albania. And later by ten other nations: Germany, Belgium, Russia, Haiti, Nepal, Sweden, Finland, Panama, Bulgaria, and Albania.

* Hoover's proposed cutback in naval power was to include 33 percent in capital ships (fifteen to ten for Great Britain and the United States); 25 percent in tonnages of aircraft carriers, cruisers, and destroyers, and 33 percent in submarine tonnage-no submarine force to exceed 35,000 tons. By one estimate, if Hoover's plan had been approved, the United States would have scrapped a total of 300,000 tons in naval vessels, over 1,000 heavy artillery pieces, nearly 1,000 tanks, and 300 bombers. Hoover's proposed cutback in naval power was to include 33 percent in capital ships (fifteen to ten for Great Britain and the United States); 25 percent in tonnages of aircraft carriers, cruisers, and destroyers, and 33 percent in submarine tonnage-no submarine force to exceed 35,000 tons. By one estimate, if Hoover's plan had been approved, the United States would have scrapped a total of 300,000 tons in naval vessels, over 1,000 heavy artillery pieces, nearly 1,000 tanks, and 300 bombers.

Plus two old battleships, two old cruisers, four destroyers, and four torpedo boats in layup. Plus two old battleships, two old cruisers, four destroyers, and four torpedo boats in layup.

* In violation of the Versailles Treaty, these "pocket" battleships actually displaced 12,000 tons, rather than 10,000 tons. In violation of the Versailles Treaty, these "pocket" battleships actually displaced 12,000 tons, rather than 10,000 tons.

* The initial agreement specified a limit of 35,000 tons on capital ships to conform to the limits imposed on the major naval powers by the 1930 London Naval Treaty, but the limit was later raised to 45,000 tons. In their final configuration, The initial agreement specified a limit of 35,000 tons on capital ships to conform to the limits imposed on the major naval powers by the 1930 London Naval Treaty, but the limit was later raised to 45,000 tons. In their final configuration, Gneisenau Gneisenau and and Scharnhorst Scharnhorst displaced 32,000 tons; displaced 32,000 tons; Bismarck Bismarck and and Tirpitz Tirpitz, 42,000 tons.

* Twenty-four small (250-ton) Type II ( Twenty-four small (250-ton) Type II (U-1 to to U-24 U-24); two large (750-ton) Type I (U-25 and and U-26 U-26); and ten medium (500-ton) Type VII (U-27 to to U-36 U-36).

* Normally, Germans entered the Navy at age eighteen, straight out of high school. Like recruits in the Imperial Navy, all spent the first year at sea crewing a full-rigged sailing ship. Hence the year of entry into the Navy was known as "crew" year, the equivalent of "class" year in other navies. The Weddigen Flotilla skippers came from the crews of 1924 to 1927. Normally, Germans entered the Navy at age eighteen, straight out of high school. Like recruits in the Imperial Navy, all spent the first year at sea crewing a full-rigged sailing ship. Hence the year of entry into the Navy was known as "crew" year, the equivalent of "class" year in other navies. The Weddigen Flotilla skippers came from the crews of 1924 to 1927.

* The monograph was published in 1939, but British intelligence apparently missed it. The Admiralty finally came by a copy in 1942, but by that time the insights it contained, foreshadowing the trade war and U-boat tactics, were of no value. The monograph was published in 1939, but British intelligence apparently missed it. The Admiralty finally came by a copy in 1942, but by that time the insights it contained, foreshadowing the trade war and U-boat tactics, were of no value.

BOOK ONE.

THE U-BOAT WAR.

AGAINST THE BRITISH EMPIRE.

SEPTEMBER 1939-D 1939-DECEMBER 1941 1941

ONE.

"TO D DIE G GALLANTLY"

On August 15, 1939, Grand Admiral Erich Raeder, chief of the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine, directed his staff, the OKM, to send a war alert to Karl Donitz, commander of the German submarine force. The message stated that all senior submarine staff officers and U-boat commanders were to report for a "reunion" on August 19 at Donitz's headquarters on the submarine tender Hecht Hecht, moored at a naval pier in Kiel. The word "reunion" was a coded order to deploy the German submarine force for war-merely four days hence.

Donitz rushed back from leave the following day. Others concerned reported on board Hecht Hecht that day or the next in high excitement. When all had gathered, Donitz outlined the complicated geopolitical situation that had developed, the perils entailed, and the submarine war plans. that day or the next in high excitement. When all had gathered, Donitz outlined the complicated geopolitical situation that had developed, the perils entailed, and the submarine war plans.

The Fuhrer, Adolf Hitler, had definitely made up his mind to invade Poland. The date had been moved forward from September 1 to August 26. Great Britain and France had pledged to come to Poland's aid. Although Hitler did not believe the British or French would fight, Donitz thought otherwise: War with those nations was not only possible, but probable. There was a further complication. To avoid the prospect of a two-front war, Hitler was attempting to negotiate a nonag-gression pact with the Soviet Union. But, so far, Joseph Stalin was foot-dragging. Conceivably, Moscow might reject Hitler's overtures and align with London and Paris and pledge support for Warsaw. The Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine therefore had to be prepared for numerous, dizzying contingencies: war with Poland alone; war with Poland assisted by Great Britain and France; war with Poland assisted by Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union; war with Poland assisted only by the Soviet Union. therefore had to be prepared for numerous, dizzying contingencies: war with Poland alone; war with Poland assisted by Great Britain and France; war with Poland assisted by Great Britain, France, and the Soviet Union; war with Poland assisted only by the Soviet Union.

The Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine was by no means prepared for a naval war with Great Britain and France. Notwithstanding the naval arms-limitations treaties of the 1920s and 1930s, those nations combined had an awesome array of surface ships: twenty-two battleships and battle cruisers, seven aircraft carriers, eighty-three cruisers, and countless destroyers, plus seven new battleships and eight carriers under construction. Against that the was by no means prepared for a naval war with Great Britain and France. Notwithstanding the naval arms-limitations treaties of the 1920s and 1930s, those nations combined had an awesome array of surface ships: twenty-two battleships and battle cruisers, seven aircraft carriers, eighty-three cruisers, and countless destroyers, plus seven new battleships and eight carriers under construction. Against that the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine had two battleships ( had two battleships (Bismarck, Tirpitz Tirpitz), and one carrier (Graf Zeppelin) under construction, two battle cruisers (Gneisenau, Scharnhorst) in commission but not combat-ready, three "pocket" battleships (Deutschland, Admiral Graf Spee, Admiral Scheer Admiral Scheer), of which only two were combat-ready, eight conventional cruisers, and about twenty destroyers in various stages of readiness. Altogether the Allies enjoyed a superiority of ten-to-one in surface ships.

Great Britain and France likewise enjoyed a superiority in numbers of oceangoing submarines. Great Britain had about fifty in commission, France about seventy, for a total of about 120. Against that the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine had twenty-seven. Not all the Allied submarines were of good quality or combat-ready, but the same was true of the German submarines. Of the twenty-seven oceangoing German boats in commission, two large ones, had twenty-seven. Not all the Allied submarines were of good quality or combat-ready, but the same was true of the German submarines. Of the twenty-seven oceangoing German boats in commission, two large ones, U-25 U-25 and and U-26 U-26, were experimental and not really suitable for combat and five were brand new or in shipyards for extended refit or overhaul, leaving only twenty fully (or nearly) ready for war on August 19.

In addition, the Germans had commissioned thirty pint-sized, 250-ton submarines-the so-called ducks. The ducks were used principally for basic or advanced training purposes, but they had three torpedo tubes and could carry six torpedoes or nine mines. Therefore all but one duck (U-11), which had been permanently detached for experimental work, could be assigned to limited combat roles in the North Sea or Baltic Sea. About eighteen of the twenty-nine ducks were fully (or nearly) ready for combat on August 19.

The Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine war plan was designed to make the best of the several contingencies. The two combat-ready "pocket" battleships, war plan was designed to make the best of the several contingencies. The two combat-ready "pocket" battleships, Admiral Graf Spee and Deutschland Admiral Graf Spee and Deutschland, each with one supply ship, were to slip secretly to sea and take up waiting positions in the North and South Atlantic. Sixteen of the twenty combat-ready oceangoing submarines were to occupy waiting positions off the Atlantic coasts of Great Britain and France and off the Strait of Gibraltar. Seven ducks were to take up waiting positions in the North Sea. Should Great Britain and France declare war, the "pocket" battleships and submarines in the Atlantic were to operate offensively against the maritime forces of those nations; the submarines in the North Sea, offensively and defensively. The remaining combat-ready naval forces, including four oceangoing submarines and eleven ducks, were to operate offensively in the Baltic Sea against the tiny Polish Navy (five submarines, four destroyers, several minelayers) or, if necessary, the more formidable Soviet Navy.

That was the plan. Should Great Britain and France declare war, Raeder had no illusions about the outcome. The best that the men of the Kriegsmarine Kriegsmarine could do, he wrote in his memoir, was to "go down fighting" and "show that they knew how to die gallantly." could do, he wrote in his memoir, was to "go down fighting" and "show that they knew how to die gallantly."

The "pocket" battleships and submarines deployed in secrecy per plan, August 19 to August 23. The Admiral Graf Spee Admiral Graf Spee, her supply ship Altmark, and fourteen oceangoing U-boats loaded with torpedoes sailed on the night of the 19th. Two other oceangoing U-boats, delayed in the shipyards, sailed on the nights of August 22 and 23. The Deutschland Deutschland and her supply ship and her supply ship Westerwald Westerwald sailed on the night of the 23rd. That same night the North Sea U-boat force (seven ducks) and the Baltic Sea U-boat force (three oceangoing boats and eleven ducks) sailed to waiting positions. In total, thirty-four of the fifty-seven commissioned U-boats (65 percent) deployed: sixteen to the Atlantic, seven to the North Sea, and eleven to the Baltic Sea. sailed on the night of the 23rd. That same night the North Sea U-boat force (seven ducks) and the Baltic Sea U-boat force (three oceangoing boats and eleven ducks) sailed to waiting positions. In total, thirty-four of the fifty-seven commissioned U-boats (65 percent) deployed: sixteen to the Atlantic, seven to the North Sea, and eleven to the Baltic Sea.

Hitler's negotiations with Stalin, meanwhile, proceeded at a maddeningly slow pace. On August 20 Stalin agreed to a preliminary trade agreement, but this hardly satisfied Hitler. That day Hitler intervened directly, cabling Stalin to suggest that he receive the German Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop, who would have full powers to sign a treaty on behalf of Germany. Stalin agreed to see von Ribbentrop on August 23 and that same night, to Hitler's immense relief, Stalin signed the pact. The published treaty (binding for twenty years) specified that neither Germany nor Russia would attack the other or support a third party, or a coalition, in an attack on one or the other. The unpublished protocols and agreements doomed Poland and the Baltic States. Germany and the Soviet Union would invade Poland and divide that nation roughly in half at the Vistula River. The Soviet Union was to exercise "influence" over Finland, Estonia, and Latvia, while Germany was to exercise "influence" over Lithuania.

D day for the invasion of Poland remained fixed for August 26. But on the day before, Hitler received several pieces of news that gave him pause. The British announced ratification of a formal mutual assistance pact with Poland, which iterated in no uncertain terms Britain's determination to fight for Poland. The French ambassador called on Hitler to make it crystal clear that France would do likewise. A letter arrived from Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, stating that Italy was not prepared for war and could not immediately go to war against Great Britain and France unless Hitler provided Italy with enormous quantities of military supplies. As a result of these developments, Hitler postponed the invasion from August 26 to its original date, September 1, gaining time for another attempt to negotiate Great Britain and France into neutrality.

The frantic diplomacy and the postponement of D day prompted the OKM to realign the U-boat deployment. The pact with Stalin reduced naval requirements in the Baltic Sea; the belligerent statements from London and Paris made it prudent to deploy more U-boat strength to the west. Accordingly, between August 23 and 28 Donitz shifted four oceangoing U-boats and ten ducks from the Baltic Sea to the North Sea. One oceangoing boat, U-36 U-36, sailed to backstop the ducks in the North Sea; the other three were held in reserve.