3. Give and ill.u.s.trate the principles which guide in the use of the different p.r.o.nouns.--Lessons 86, 87.

4. Give and ill.u.s.trate the principles which guide in the use of the number forms, the gender forms, and the case forms.--Lessons 118, 125, 142.

LESSON 127.

COMPARISON.

+Introductory Hints.+--_That apple is sweet, that other is sweeter, but this one is the sweetest._ The adjective _sweet_, expressing a quality of the three apples, is, as you see, inflected by adding _er_ and _est_.

Adjectives, then, have one modification, and this is marked by form, or inflection. This modification is called +Comparison+, because it is used when things are compared with one another in respect to some quality common to them all, but possessed by them in different degrees. The form of the adjective which expresses the simple quality, as _sweet_, is of the +Positive Degree+; that which expresses the quality in a greater or a less degree, as _sweeter_, _less sweet_, is of the +Comparative Degree+; and that which expresses the quality in the greatest or the least degree, as _sweetest_, _least sweet_, is of the +Superlative Degree+.

But even the positive implies a comparison; we should not say, This _apple_ is _sweet_, unless this particular fruit had more of the quality than ordinary apples possess.

Notice, too, that the adjective in the comparative and superlative degrees always expresses the quality relatively. When we say, This _apple_ is _sweeter than that_, or, This _apple_ is the _sweetest of the three_, we do not mean that any one of the apples is very sweet, but only that one apple is sweeter than the other, or the sweetest of those compared.

The several degrees of the quality expressed by the adjective may be increased or diminished by adverbs modifying the adjective. We can say _very_, _exceedingly_, _rather_, or _somewhat_ sweet; _far_, _still_, or _much_, sweeter; _by far_ or _much_ the sweetest.

Some adverbs, as well as adjectives, are compared.

Adjectives have one modification; viz., +Comparison+. [Footnote: Two adjectives, _this_ and _that_, have number forms--_this_, _these_; _that_, _those_. In Anglo-Saxon and Latin, adjectives have forms to indicate gender, number, and case.]

+DEFINITIONS+.

+_Comparison_ is a modification of the adjective (or the adverb) to express the relative degree of the quality in the things compared.+ [Footnote: Different degrees of quant.i.ty, also, may sometimes be expressed by comparison.]

+The _Positive Degree_ expresses the simple quality.+

+The _Comparative Degree_ expresses a greater or a less degree of the quality.

+The _Superlative Degree_ expresses the greatest or the least degree of the quality+.

+RULE.--Adjectives are regularly compared by adding _er_ to the positive to form the comparative, and _est_ to the positive to form the superlative+.

RULES FOR SPELLING.

+RULE I.--Final e is dropped before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as+, _fine, finer; love, loving._

+Exceptions.+--The _e_ is retained (1) after _c_ and _g_ when the suffix begins with _a_ or _o_; as, _peaceable, changeable;_ (2) after _o;_ as, _hoeing;_ and (3) when it is needed to preserve the ident.i.ty of the word; as, _singeing, dyeing._

+RULE II.---Y after a consonant becomes _i_ before a suffix net beginning with _i;_ as,+ _witty, wittier; dry, dried._

Exceptions.---Y does not change before 's, nor in forming the plural of proper nouns; as, _lady's,_ the _Marys,_ the _Henrys._

+RULE III.--In monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, a final consonant after a single vowel doubles before a suffix beginning with a vowel; as+, _hot, hotter; begin, beginning._

Exceptions.--_X, k,_ and _v_ are never doubled, and _gas_ has _gases_ in the plural.

Adjectives of more than two syllables are generally compared by prefixing _more_ and _most._ This method is often used with adjectives of two syllables and sometimes with those of one.

+Remark+.--_More beautiful, most beautiful_, etc. can hardly be called degree forms of the adjective. The adverbs _more_ and _most_ have the degree forms, and in parsing they may be regarded as separate words. The adjective, however, is varied in sense the same as when the inflections _er_ and _est_ are added.

Degrees of diminution are expressed by prefixing _less_ and _least_[Footnote: This use of an adverb to form the comparison was borrowed from the Norman-French. But note how the adverb is compared, The Saxon superlative ending +st+ is in _most_ and _least_; and the Saxon comparative ending +s+, unchanged to +r+, is the last letter in _less_--changed to +r+, as it regularly was, in coming into English, it is the _r_ in _more_.

When it was forgotten that _less_ is a comparative, _er_ was added, and we have the double comparative _lesser_--in use to-day.

After the French method of comparing was introduced into English, both methods were often used with the same adjective; and, for a time, double comparatives and double superlatives were common; as, _worser_, _most boldest_. In "King Lear" Shakespeare uses the double comparative a dozen times.]; as, _valuable_, _less valuable_, _least valuable_. Most definitive and many descriptive adjectives cannot be compared, as their meaning will not admit of different degrees.

Direction.--_From this list of adjectives select those that cannot be compared, and compare those that remain:--_

Observe the Rules for Spelling given above.

Wooden, English, unwelcome, physical, one, that, common, handsome, happy, able, polite, hot, sweet, vertical, two-wheeled, infinite, witty, humble, any, thin, intemperate, undeviating, nimble, holy, lunar, superior.

Of the two forms of comparison, that which is more easily p.r.o.nounced and more agreeable to the ear is to be preferred.

+Direction+.--_Correct the following_:--

Famousest, virtuousest, eloquenter, comfortabler, amusingest.

Some +adverbs+ are compared by adding _er_ and _est_, and some by prefixing _more_ and _most_.

+Direction+.--_Compare the following_:--

Early, easily, fast, firmly, foolishly, late, long, often, soon, wisely.

Some adjectives and adverbs are irregular in their comparison.

+Direction+.--_Learn to compare the following adjectives and adverbs_:--

Adjectives Irregularly Compared.

_Pos. Comp. Superlative_.

(Aft),* after, aftmost _or_ aftermost.

Bad, | Evil, + worse, worst.

Ill | Far, farther, fartherest _or_ fathermost Fore, former, foremost _or_ first.

(Forth), further, furtherest _or_ furthermost.

Good, better, best.

Hind, hinder, hindmost _or_ hindermost.

(In), inner, inmost _or_ innermost.

Late, later _or_ latest _or_ latter last.

Little,+ less _or_ least.

lesser, Many _or_ more, most.

Much, Near, nearer nearest _or_ next.

Old, older _or_ oldest _or_ elder, eldest.

(Out), outer _or_ outmost _or_ utter, outermost; utmost _or_ uttermost.

Under, ----, undermost.