From Cover to Cover.

Kathleen T. Horning.

INTRODUCTION.

With approximately five thousand new books for children being published every year, it may seem an overwhelming task to wade through them. But with this embarra.s.sment of riches, it is important for adults who work with children and books to sharpen their critical skills so they can select the best books available. But how do we determine which books are the best ones? What makes a good children's book? Are there simple standards we can apply across the board? Or are there different sets of standards for different types of books? Or for different needs or audiences? This book is meant to serve as a beginning place for those who want to evaluate or review books published specifically for children. It will provide concrete examples of aspects to consider when looking at children's books with a critical eye.

DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN EVALUATION AND REVIEW.

For our purposes, we will use the term evaluation evaluation to refer to a critical a.s.sessment of a book-in other words, the thought process one goes through in order to formulate an opinion of the book. Sometimes book evaluation can be done very quickly, drawing on a wealth of professional or personal experience; other times it requires a great deal of deliberation, careful thinking, perhaps even consultation with outside sources of information. This book will offer guidelines for evaluating the various genres of children's books: nonfiction, folklore, poetry, picture books, beginning readers and easy chapter books, and fiction. It will also offer advice on how to write a review. to refer to a critical a.s.sessment of a book-in other words, the thought process one goes through in order to formulate an opinion of the book. Sometimes book evaluation can be done very quickly, drawing on a wealth of professional or personal experience; other times it requires a great deal of deliberation, careful thinking, perhaps even consultation with outside sources of information. This book will offer guidelines for evaluating the various genres of children's books: nonfiction, folklore, poetry, picture books, beginning readers and easy chapter books, and fiction. It will also offer advice on how to write a review.

A review review is a formal written expression of the critical a.s.sessment, generally printed soon after the book under consideration has been published. Good reviews help readers create a mental picture of the book by briefly describing it and presenting an a.s.sessment of its quality. is a formal written expression of the critical a.s.sessment, generally printed soon after the book under consideration has been published. Good reviews help readers create a mental picture of the book by briefly describing it and presenting an a.s.sessment of its quality.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD CHILDREN'S BOOK?

There are no quick, easy answers to this question because there are so many different kinds of children's books that can be outstanding for different reasons. Furthermore, as times change and our perception of children evolves, so too do our standards for excellence in children's books. Each chapter in this book will open with a brief history that will help provide a context for the type of books under discussion, followed by evaluative criteria, using examples from outstanding books. Newcomers to the field may wish to seek out these exemplary books to expand their general knowledge of children's literature by reading some of the best books we offer children.

NEW TO THE SECOND EDITION.

It's been more than ten years since the first edition of From Cover to Cover From Cover to Cover was published, and in that time there have been changes in the children's book world. The chapters included here have been updated to reflect that, and the chapter on fiction now includes a section on subgenres. In each chapter new books have been included as examples of some of the best that children's literature has to offer. was published, and in that time there have been changes in the children's book world. The chapters included here have been updated to reflect that, and the chapter on fiction now includes a section on subgenres. In each chapter new books have been included as examples of some of the best that children's literature has to offer.

CHAPTER 1.

A Critical Approach to Children's Books.

Reading a book for the purposes of evaluation and review requires more attention to detail than reading a book for pleasure or for information. When you read to evaluate, your a.s.sessment of the book will ultimately affect other potential readers. It may make a difference as to whether or not a book is purchased for a library or a school or as a birthday gift for a child you'll never meet. In fact, it may make a difference as to whether or not the book is read by a child at all. It is your professional responsibility to try to take your evaluation beyond a personal response.

This is not to say that your personal response doesn't matter. It would be impossible for you to put it completely aside-you are a reviewer, after all, not a robot. What the responsible reviewer strives for is an informed and reasoned opinion, clearly articulated so that others can learn about books they haven't read.

In essence, a children's book reviewer reads and writes with two audiences in mind: (1) adults who read reviews to help them select books for children and (2) the children themselves. If a review is printed in a publication that has a national distribution, it may also be read by the author and publisher of the book in question; however, neither is the intended audience for your review. In other words, it is not your goal to write a review to stroke an author's ego or to pick a bone with a publisher.

Still, it is important to remember that most books for children are created with the best intentions in mind. No one sets out to produce a crummy book that kids will hate. If this is your initial a.s.sessment of a book you're reviewing, it would be unfair and unwise to let it stand as your final one without a great deal of further consideration. You'll need to take a closer look at the book. What was the author's intent in writing the book? What qualities did the editor see that led him or her to believe that the book merited publication? Why did the ill.u.s.trator choose this particular style? The answers to all these questions have their origins in the history of the book's creation. While it isn't necessary for you to know the details of a book's publishing history in order to review it, an understanding of the general context in which children's books are created will help you read more critically.

HOW CHILDREN'S BOOKS ARE PUBLISHED Many publishing houses have divisions or departments that are devoted to publishing books for young people. These were, for the most part, established in the 1920s and developed through the pioneering efforts of women such as Louise Seaman Bechtel, May Ma.s.see, Helen Dean Fish, Marian Fiery, and Virginia Kirkus, who were the first children's book editors. Unlike adult book divisions, which are driven by the consumer market (bookstore sales), children's book divisions developed largely in response to an inst.i.tutional market. Sales to libraries and schools accounted for a high percentage of the total number of children's books sold. As library budgets began to shrink in the 1970s and 1980s, children's book publishers began to turn their attention toward consumer sales as well, although the inst.i.tutional market continues to be an important influence in the children's book industry.

There are books that are created specifically for one market or the other. Those that are produced for the inst.i.tutional school market alone are called textbooks. textbooks. They are generally sold to entire school districts rather than to individuals. They are also created in a separate division of the publishing industry that specializes in producing books to fit the exact needs of teachers working with specific school curricula and guidelines at various grade levels. Books that are produced with only the consumer market in mind are called They are generally sold to entire school districts rather than to individuals. They are also created in a separate division of the publishing industry that specializes in producing books to fit the exact needs of teachers working with specific school curricula and guidelines at various grade levels. Books that are produced with only the consumer market in mind are called ma.s.s-market books ma.s.s-market books. These are generally produced as paperbacks or as picture books with inexpensive cardboard covers (such as Little Golden Books) and they may be sold in supermarkets, airports, drugstores, and convenience stores as well as in bookstores. While there are publishers that specialize in producing ma.s.s-market books, most children's book departments produce ma.s.s-market books to some degree.

Books created for both the consumer market and the inst.i.tutional market are called trade books trade books. These are sold to schools and libraries, and they are also sold directly to consumers through bookstores. Both quality and child appeal are taken into account when weighing the sales potential. From the publisher's point of view, the best kind of children's trade book is one that will succeed in both the consumer and the inst.i.tutional market and will continue to sell well for decades. This is the type of success guaranteed by a book that wins the Newbery or Caldecott Medal.

Most children's books start out as an idea in the mind of an author. That may seem obvious to you, but I mention it here because many people seem to have the notion that ideas start with publishers, who then a.s.sign them to authors. People often ask children's editors: "Why don't you publish more books about X?" in a tone that suggests they hold editors personally responsible for the lack of X books. But editors don't tell authors what to write. They must wait for X to develop in the mind of the author, and then they have to determine if it's good enough to publish. The editor's role is to find and nurture the talents of authors and artists who will create good children's books. If they cast their nets widely enough, their catch may include an author who will come up with the idea of writing about X on his or her own.

Once a ma.n.u.script is accepted for publication, the editor works with the author to help shape the book into its final form. An editor may make suggestions about chapters that need to be rewritten, characters that need to be developed, or ideas that need to be clarified. The ultimate responsibility for the writing, however, rests with the author. If the author has submitted the text for a picture book, the editor will choose an artist to ill.u.s.trate it. While the author may see preliminary sketches of the ill.u.s.trations, chances are that the author and ill.u.s.trator will never meet while the book is in production. Generally the author has very little to say about the ill.u.s.trations other than their factual content.

When the final version of the ma.n.u.script is completed, the editor-in conjunction with the designers-will estimate the number of pages there will be in the printed book, specify the trim trim (size of page), and decide the type of binding. He or she will also discuss jacket art with the art director, who will in turn a.s.sign the work to an artist if it's not an ill.u.s.trated book; most picture book jackets are ill.u.s.trated by the artist doing the interior art. Again, the author generally has little or no say in such matters. The ma.n.u.script is turned over to a (size of page), and decide the type of binding. He or she will also discuss jacket art with the art director, who will in turn a.s.sign the work to an artist if it's not an ill.u.s.trated book; most picture book jackets are ill.u.s.trated by the artist doing the interior art. Again, the author generally has little or no say in such matters. The ma.n.u.script is turned over to a copy editor copy editor, who will read it to correct spelling, grammar, and inconsistencies in style and internal plot. A copy editor may question noticeable errors in fact but will not retrace every step of an author's background research. In most cases the author has final say about the copy editor's changes.

A copy of the ma.n.u.script is also given to a designer, designer, who will choose an appropriate who will choose an appropriate typeface typeface. Based on the number of characters characters (letters, numbers, s.p.a.ces, and punctuation marks) in the final ma.n.u.script, the designer will choose a typeface that will fill the number of pages estimated earlier. The designer may print out sample pages at this point so that the editor can look at the (letters, numbers, s.p.a.ces, and punctuation marks) in the final ma.n.u.script, the designer will choose a typeface that will fill the number of pages estimated earlier. The designer may print out sample pages at this point so that the editor can look at the page layout page layout (what the printed page in the book will look like) and decide if the type and page design are appropriate for the look of the book. The size of type in a children's book is especially important, as it often dictates the age level of the book's audience. Children are surprisingly sensitive to typeface. If they decide it's too small, they're likely to reject a book as "too hard," no matter the content. If they decide it's too large, they may scoff at a book as "babyish." (what the printed page in the book will look like) and decide if the type and page design are appropriate for the look of the book. The size of type in a children's book is especially important, as it often dictates the age level of the book's audience. Children are surprisingly sensitive to typeface. If they decide it's too small, they're likely to reject a book as "too hard," no matter the content. If they decide it's too large, they may scoff at a book as "babyish."

When the editor and designer have made the final decisions about typeface, number of lines per page, margins, and other design elements, the ma.n.u.script is set into pages. Computer-generated page proofs are circulated for proofreading and final corrections. An author rarely makes any substantive changes in the text at this point, although the author, editor, designer, and a proofreader will look at the proofs carefully in case there are any printer's errors or any blatant mistakes that were somehow missed earlier. Meanwhile, the sales department estimates the number of copies in the initial print run. The production department will arrange to have paper-chosen for its color, weight, and cost-and material for the binding, often chosen to coordinate with the jacket, sent to the printer. The final approved pages are sent to the printer for the actual edition run.

Because of the visual nature of picture books, they undergo a different production process. After an artist has been commissioned to ill.u.s.trate a picture book, he or she discusses layout and design with the editor and the art director and makes preliminary decisions about how each page will look. Next he or she prepares and submits roughs roughs, detailed pencil sketches for each page spread. Usually, the designer creates paged layouts placing text with relation to the artist's roughs and the trim size of the book. There can be several layouts or dummy stages before the roughs are approved, and the artist completes and delivers the finished artwork for the book. The designer prepares a camera-ready digital mechanical mechanical that shows the position of text and ill.u.s.trations and includes instructions for the printer. The first set of color proofs comes back from the printer, and they are carefully checked against the originals by the artist, art director, designer, and editor so that any problems with color, size, and position of the ill.u.s.trations can be corrected. When these final decisions and adjustments are made, and after a few more proof stages for final checking, the book goes off to be printed and bound. that shows the position of text and ill.u.s.trations and includes instructions for the printer. The first set of color proofs comes back from the printer, and they are carefully checked against the originals by the artist, art director, designer, and editor so that any problems with color, size, and position of the ill.u.s.trations can be corrected. When these final decisions and adjustments are made, and after a few more proof stages for final checking, the book goes off to be printed and bound.

In the meantime, the editor has enthusiastically described the book to the company's in-house sales representatives at the seasonal sales conference and has provided a description of the book for them to use in their catalog. They in turn will try to get the book into bookstores across the country. The publisher's marketing and publicity departments have been working on behalf of the book, as well, to get the word out to the world that the book exists. A glowing description of the book will be placed into their print and/or online seasonal catalog. They may include the t.i.tle in announcement ads of the season's forthcoming books that appear in trade journals such as Publishers Weekly Publishers Weekly and and School Library Journal School Library Journal. They may choose to buy advertising s.p.a.ce in a children's literature review journal that will specifically highlight the book. Or they may create posters, bookmarks, flyers, or b.u.t.tons advertising the book to give away to librarians and teachers at professional conferences. They may promote the book through their company website, online catalogs, and blogs.

They will also send out advance review copies advance review copies of the book (often specially printed from uncorrected proofs so reviewers can evaluate the book early) to professional journals and to some general publications. In addition, review copies are sent to large library systems and departments of education for their own internal review. Favorable reviews and recommendations for purchase by these large systems can be important to the success of any children's book, since inst.i.tutional sales still account for a significant part of the children's trade book market. Throughout most of the twentieth century, children's librarians set the critical standards for children's trade books, and they continue to have a great deal of influence in the twenty-first century. The ultimate prizes for a children's author and ill.u.s.trator are the Newbery and Caldecott Medals, respectively. These are the only book awards that have nationwide impact on sales, and they are given annually by children's librarians under the auspices of the American Library a.s.sociation. of the book (often specially printed from uncorrected proofs so reviewers can evaluate the book early) to professional journals and to some general publications. In addition, review copies are sent to large library systems and departments of education for their own internal review. Favorable reviews and recommendations for purchase by these large systems can be important to the success of any children's book, since inst.i.tutional sales still account for a significant part of the children's trade book market. Throughout most of the twentieth century, children's librarians set the critical standards for children's trade books, and they continue to have a great deal of influence in the twenty-first century. The ultimate prizes for a children's author and ill.u.s.trator are the Newbery and Caldecott Medals, respectively. These are the only book awards that have nationwide impact on sales, and they are given annually by children's librarians under the auspices of the American Library a.s.sociation.

THE PARTS OF A BOOK.

Just as a bit of background about the publishing industry can help to inform your reading, so too can an understanding of the book itself as an object.

For the most part, children's books are still considered as physical ent.i.ties, although we are at a point in history where technology is rapidly changing. After a few decades of fits and starts, electronic books electronic books, or e-books e-books, have finally become accepted in the adult trade publishing world, but they have been slower to take hold in children's book publishing. While some experts have observed that children, with their affinity for computers and technology, would seem to be a natural audience for e-books, others have pointed out the special challenges the industry faces when it comes to children, from creating a satisfying electronic picture book to issues of access since many children do not own the necessary technical devices needed to read an e-book.

Although books may vary widely, there are several constants in the way they are designed that should be familiar to you. It's useful to know the special vocabulary of the book-to know what endpapers are, for example, or what is meant when someone refers to flap copy. As a critical reader, you should be aware of all the parts of a book that contribute to the whole. You may even find a piece of information in the author's acknowledgments or on the copyright page that will help you with an a.s.sessment of the book.

Beyond the body of the book proper, created by an author and/or ill.u.s.trator, we can look at three additional parts: binding, front matter binding, front matter, and back matter back matter.

BINDING.

The cover: Children are notorious for judging books by their covers and that, of course, is the opposite of what the critic strives for. Most hardcover children's trade books come with a paper jacket, or dust jacket, dust jacket, that includes color artwork designed to entice potential readers. The part of the jacket that folds around the inside of the cover is called a that includes color artwork designed to entice potential readers. The part of the jacket that folds around the inside of the cover is called a flap, flap, and it contains printed information, known as and it contains printed information, known as flap copy flap copy. The front flap generally gives a brief summary of the book and typically concludes with a lot of superlatives about how great the book is, while the back flap often includes biographical information (bio) about the book's creator(s).

Professional reviewers don't always see the complete dust jacket, as they often see books before they are published, in a form known as bound galleys bound galleys or or advance reading copies advance reading copies ( (ARCs). Whether you see the jacket or not when you are evaluating a book, it is important to keep in mind that jackets function more as part of a book's marketing and promotion than as an integral part of its art.

Most children's trade books make their first appearance as hardcover, hardcover, or or clothbound, clothbound, books. The hard covers, called boards, are composed of heavy cardboard stock covered with cloth or paper, or a combination of the two. books. The hard covers, called boards, are composed of heavy cardboard stock covered with cloth or paper, or a combination of the two. Library bindings Library bindings on hardcover books are reinforced to stand up to multiple circulations, whereas on hardcover books are reinforced to stand up to multiple circulations, whereas trade bindings trade bindings are on books produced primarily for bookstore sales. If a hardcover book sells reasonably well, the publisher may choose to issue a are on books produced primarily for bookstore sales. If a hardcover book sells reasonably well, the publisher may choose to issue a paperback paperback edition or may sell the paperback rights to another publisher. In some cases, a publisher opts for edition or may sell the paperback rights to another publisher. In some cases, a publisher opts for simultaneous publication simultaneous publication, issuing a hardcover and paperback at the same time. Other times, a hardcover edition will be skipped and the book will be issued as a paperback original paperback original. In young-adult literature, paperback originals have become increasingly common, but in children's books, most paperback originals are published as ma.s.s-market books, which are generally not given the same consideration by reviewers. As a result, they are often only briefly noted or even completely overlooked, although they are regularly purchased by libraries due to their popularity. Most popular series books such as Cirque du Freak, Magic Tree House, and Rainbow Magic are issued as paperback originals and thus have rarely withstood the scrutiny of professional evaluation and review because they are not reviewed as individual volumes.

Endpapers: Every hardcover book has sheets of paper, generally of heavier stock than the text, pasted flat against the insides of the front and back covers and along the gutters (the page edges at the inside margins) of the first and last pages of the book. Sometimes endpapers include supplementary information such as maps, and sometimes-particularly in picture books-they are ill.u.s.trated or the story actually begins and ends on the endpapers. More often than not, endpapers are left blank, although they may be of a color contrasting with or complementary to the cover or the jacket, to add to the overall aesthetic of the book. Books are composed of sheets of paper called leaves. The right-hand page of the leaf is the recto recto page; the page on the reverse side is the page; the page on the reverse side is the verso verso (the left-hand page). (the left-hand page).

FRONT MATTER.

Half t.i.tle: The first page of a book, bearing only the book's t.i.tle, with no author or publisher listed. Half-t.i.tle pages are carryovers from the past, when books were sold without bindings, and half t.i.tles served to both identify and protect the pages stacked in bookshops.

On the back of the half-t.i.tle page, the author's previous books may be listed. This is called an ad card ad card. Ill.u.s.trated books sometimes use the back of the half-t.i.tle page for an ill.u.s.tration known as a frontispiece frontispiece. Sometimes books are designed so that this page forms a double-page spread with the t.i.tle page t.i.tle page.

t.i.tle page: Every book has a t.i.tle page, and it contains some of the most important information about the book. Both sides of the leaf are considered to be part of the t.i.tle page. The front page includes the full official t.i.tle of the book, including a subt.i.tle (if there is one); names of people a.s.sociated with the creation of the book, such as the author, ill.u.s.trator, adaptor, editor, or translator; an editorial imprint; and the name of the company that published the book. The t.i.tle page sometimes includes the year of publication and information about the edition.

The copyright page copyright page is often chock-full of small print that reveals a great deal about the book. The copyright information usually appears after the t.i.tle page, but in some books it is placed at the end of the book, usually on the final page. The year of original publication is shown in the copyright date, which follows the symbol . Referring to the copyright statement should be part of every critic's routine because it helps to establish a context for the book you are about to evaluate. Was the book originally published in another country or in an earlier edition? If so, the copyright page will tell you. When more than one date is listed in the copyright line, the one that corresponds to the book you are holding in your hand is always the most recent year. This is the date you will cite in the bibliographic information accompanying your review. is often chock-full of small print that reveals a great deal about the book. The copyright information usually appears after the t.i.tle page, but in some books it is placed at the end of the book, usually on the final page. The year of original publication is shown in the copyright date, which follows the symbol . Referring to the copyright statement should be part of every critic's routine because it helps to establish a context for the book you are about to evaluate. Was the book originally published in another country or in an earlier edition? If so, the copyright page will tell you. When more than one date is listed in the copyright line, the one that corresponds to the book you are holding in your hand is always the most recent year. This is the date you will cite in the bibliographic information accompanying your review.

Publishers generally include information related to a book's printing history on the copyright page. People sometimes use the terms printing printing and and edition edition interchangeably; however, they are technically not the same thing. interchangeably; however, they are technically not the same thing. Edition Edition refers to all the copies of a book printed from the same set of files. There may be several refers to all the copies of a book printed from the same set of files. There may be several printings printings of a single edition but, except for occasional minor changes such as the correction of a misspelling, there are not significant textual differences between printings. You may see a notation on the copyright page such as of a single edition but, except for occasional minor changes such as the correction of a misspelling, there are not significant textual differences between printings. You may see a notation on the copyright page such as First Edition First Edition, which generally means the book you are holding is the first printing of the first edition, in other words the first appearance of this particular text. The notation First American Edition First American Edition is often a sign that the book was previously published in another country. When that is the case, you may see a statement beginning with the words "First published in..." which will tell you the country of origin, the date of first publication, and the original publisher of the book. If parts of the book were first published elsewhere (such as in a magazine), as is often the case with collections of poetry and short stories, this should be indicated on the copyright page as well, or on a continuation of that page. is often a sign that the book was previously published in another country. When that is the case, you may see a statement beginning with the words "First published in..." which will tell you the country of origin, the date of first publication, and the original publisher of the book. If parts of the book were first published elsewhere (such as in a magazine), as is often the case with collections of poetry and short stories, this should be indicated on the copyright page as well, or on a continuation of that page.

Many publishers also include a printing code here, showing the number of printings a particular edition of a book has been through. In printing codes, the numerals from 1 through 10 may run backward or forward or may show the even numbers running forward, followed by the odd numbers running backward. Whichever way the numbers appear, the lowest one that appears in the code tells you the number of the printing of the book you are holding.

For example, 2 4 6 8 10 9 7 5 3 1 is a standard code for a first printing. Note that the lowest number in this string is 1-that's how we can tell the book is a first printing. Using the same style of code, a fourth printing would be 4 6 8 10 9 7 5. The numerals 1, 2, and 3 have been dropped from this string. Another publisher might designate a first printing with 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 and a fourth printing as 10 9 8 7 6 5 4.

Today most books published in the United States also include Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication data (CIP) on the copyright page. The CIP data has the sort of information that is used in a library catalog and includes the book's author; t.i.tle; ISBNs; subject headings; library cla.s.sification; and, for children's books, a one-or two-line summary of the book. Like the dust jacket, the CIP data should never be taken as an integral part of the book. The book creators have no control over this information; therefore, books should never be criticized for misinformation in the CIP data. The (CIP) on the copyright page. The CIP data has the sort of information that is used in a library catalog and includes the book's author; t.i.tle; ISBNs; subject headings; library cla.s.sification; and, for children's books, a one-or two-line summary of the book. Like the dust jacket, the CIP data should never be taken as an integral part of the book. The book creators have no control over this information; therefore, books should never be criticized for misinformation in the CIP data. The International Standard Book Number International Standard Book Number (ISBN) is an important piece of information that appears here (and usually above the bar code on the back of the jacket or cover); each binding of each t.i.tle has a unique ISBN, to be used in placing orders to purchase it. Trade bindings, library bindings, and paperback editions of the same books all have separate ISBNs, which should be indicated in every review's bibliographic citation. (ISBN) is an important piece of information that appears here (and usually above the bar code on the back of the jacket or cover); each binding of each t.i.tle has a unique ISBN, to be used in placing orders to purchase it. Trade bindings, library bindings, and paperback editions of the same books all have separate ISBNs, which should be indicated in every review's bibliographic citation.

Other valuable details related to a book's production are sometimes found on the copyright page. You may find, for example, an author's source note for a folktale. If photographs have been used to ill.u.s.trate the book, photo credits often appear here. In picture books some publishers now indicate the ill.u.s.tration media on the copyright page and, in books of all kinds, names and sizes of type styles used may be cited, in addition to the name of the book designer.

The next recto page often consists of the author's and artist's dedications dedications of the work to one or more individuals. Like jacket art, flap copy, and CIP data summaries, dedications are generally irrelevant to the a.s.sessment of the book as a whole. of the work to one or more individuals. Like jacket art, flap copy, and CIP data summaries, dedications are generally irrelevant to the a.s.sessment of the book as a whole.

Sometimes an author thanks someone who has been helpful in the book's creation, and this sort of information should be included in the acknowledgments page acknowledgments page, which sometimes follows the dedication page or sometimes appears at the end of the book. Unlike dedications, acknowledgments can be significant to the critic: It is quite common for writers to seek out the expert opinions of content specialists who read over the final ma.n.u.script of a book prior to publication and point out any inaccuracies or implausibilities they notice. This sort of acknowledgment by the author usually indicates the content specialist's professional affiliation. Phillip Hoose's book The Race to Save the Lord G.o.d Bird The Race to Save the Lord G.o.d Bird includes in his acknowledgments: includes in his acknowledgments: Many scientists, including Dr. Davis Finch and Dr. David Wilcove, helped me evaluate facts and ideas and led me to materials concerning everything from grubs to extinction. Dr. Larry Master, Chief Zoologist for NatureServe, read much of the scientific material critically and saved me from embarra.s.sing errors.

This shows that even though the author is trained as a scientist himself, he sought out the opinions of others who were experts in the field, and it may be of help in a.s.sessing accuracy.

Preface: A short note, written by the author, includes details about the creation of the book that are not an essential part of the book's content. Sometimes called simply an author's note author's note, it may give readers a brief description of what inspired the author to write the book, or it may tell us why the author believes the subject of the book is important. In children's books, we sometimes see a variant of this called "A Note to Parents." This typically includes information about the levels of understanding children are likely to possess at different ages. For example, Robie H. Harris's book about human reproduction, It's Not the Stork It's Not the Stork, includes a note for parents and other adults working with young children outlining the types of questions young children have about the subject and suggests how best to use the book with them.

Foreword: Like the preface, a foreword is also a short note about the book's creation and the need for information on the topic; however, a foreword is generally written by someone other than the author, often an expert on the book's subject.

Contents: Books with chapter headings include a table of contents that lists the front matter, part t.i.tle headings, chapter headings, and back matter in order and indicates the page number for the beginning of each. The contents can be especially helpful in a nonfiction book because it often reveals the organization (or lack thereof) of the material in the book. In novels, chapter t.i.tles listed in the contents can provide a quick summary of the action, which can help you remember plot details after you have read the book.

Between the contents and the body of the book, the publisher may insert another half-t.i.tle page half-t.i.tle page. If the book is divided into two or more named parts, there will be a part-t.i.tle page part-t.i.tle page right before the beginning of the body of the book. This may simply say "Part One" or "Book One," or it might give a specific t.i.tle to the section, such as "The Escape." right before the beginning of the body of the book. This may simply say "Part One" or "Book One," or it might give a specific t.i.tle to the section, such as "The Escape."

BACK MATTER.

Additional information often appears at the end of the book, particularly in works of nonfiction. Back matter can be an essential part of the book, and it should be evaluated and reviewed as carefully as the body of the book itself.

Epilogue: A brief concluding statement that stands apart from the text as a whole. There is often a sense that the author has made a sudden jump ahead in time from the body of the book. Margot Theis Raven's picture book Let Them Play Let Them Play, ill.u.s.trated by Chris Ellison, recounts a 1955 World Series Little League game in which an all-black team was not allowed to play. A one-page epilogue fast-forwards to 2002, when the original team members, now old men, took a bus to the opening ceremonies of the Little League World Series, where they were presented with a championship banner.

Afterword: A short and usually subjective pa.s.sage in which the author shares his or her own personal responses related to the subject of the book. At the end of Hitler Youth: Growing Up in Hitler's Shadow Hitler Youth: Growing Up in Hitler's Shadow, author Susan Campbell Bartoletti tells readers: This book is my attempt to understand the role of young people during a devastating twelve-year period of history that changed our world forever. It is my attempt to make sense out of the fact that adults taught young people to hate, to kill, and to feel superior over others. After all, the Hitler Youth weren't born n.a.z.is; they became n.a.z.is.

Appendix: Supplementary material on a particular aspect of a nonfiction topic is sometimes included in an organized section at the back of the book. A book on the history of major-league baseball, for example, might include an appendix providing a chronological listing of World Series winners. Appendices are typically labeled by letters A, B, C, and so on, followed by a descriptive t.i.tle: Appendix A: World Series Winners Appendix B: All-time Record Holders Glossary: An alphabetical list of words and/or expressions used in the body of the book that may be unfamiliar to readers. Each entry in a glossary is defined, and sometimes a p.r.o.nunciation is included. Glossaries are usually confined to the special vocabulary related to the subject of the book. A book on a ballet company, for instance, might include a glossary of words such as "arabesque," "barre," and "pointe." A book written in English but that includes some words and expressions in Spanish might have a glossary that gives the definitions and p.r.o.nunciations of the Spanish used in the text.

Source notes: In nonfiction, source notes, source notes, or or references, references, provide readers with a record of the original sources the author consulted while researching the topic. Source notes are usually listed chapter by chapter, in the order in which the information is cited in the text. Authors sometimes include a sentence or two that gives readers insight into the research process used and how decisions were made when sources conflicted with each other. provide readers with a record of the original sources the author consulted while researching the topic. Source notes are usually listed chapter by chapter, in the order in which the information is cited in the text. Authors sometimes include a sentence or two that gives readers insight into the research process used and how decisions were made when sources conflicted with each other.

Bibliography: The original sources consulted by the author are generally listed alphabetically by the author in a bibliography. In books for the young, authors sometimes provide "Books for Further Reading," a list of books on the subject that are written at roughly the same age level as the book in hand.

Index: An alphabetical list of topics and/or names that appear in the body of the book, accompanied by the page numbers on which the items can be found.

Bio: Biographical information about the author sometimes appears on the last page of the book. This may be a restatement of the back flap bio, or it may be an expanded version.

CATEGORIES OF CHILDREN'S BOOKS We typically categorize children's books in two ways: by age level age level and by and by genre genre, or type. Juvenile trade publishing produces books for all ages of children, from babies up through the teen years. The age level of the intended audience generally dictates both form and content.

Nonfiction, or books of information as they are often called, is published for all ages. But two books on the same topic, even written by the same author, will be very different from each other if one is aimed at three-year-olds and the other is written for children from ages eight to ten. It stands to reason that a book on human reproduction published for preschoolers will differ greatly from a book on the same subject published for adolescents. The age level of the intended audience may also dictate subject matter. A book on going to day care would obviously be for preschoolers, and a book on the history of the Negro Baseball Leagues, for older readers.

Folklore and and poetry poetry are also published for all ages of children. As with nonfiction, both style and content will differ according to the age levels of the intended audience. Many picture-book editions of single folktales are published every year, some for children as young as two or three and some for children as old as eight or nine. Collections of folktales and other kinds of traditional literature, such as mythology, tall tales, and epic literature, are generally aimed at school-age children. Young children, who respond naturally to rhythm and rhyme, are a receptive audience for nursery rhymes and humorous verse, the early roots of poetry. Older children enjoy humorous verse as well, in addition to more sophisticated forms of true poetry, some of which is especially written for children and some selected from poetry written for adults. are also published for all ages of children. As with nonfiction, both style and content will differ according to the age levels of the intended audience. Many picture-book editions of single folktales are published every year, some for children as young as two or three and some for children as old as eight or nine. Collections of folktales and other kinds of traditional literature, such as mythology, tall tales, and epic literature, are generally aimed at school-age children. Young children, who respond naturally to rhythm and rhyme, are a receptive audience for nursery rhymes and humorous verse, the early roots of poetry. Older children enjoy humorous verse as well, in addition to more sophisticated forms of true poetry, some of which is especially written for children and some selected from poetry written for adults.

In the area of fiction fiction, we get a clearer breakdown by age level, as specific forms of fiction have been created to meet the unique needs and interests of children at various ages. Picture books Picture books have been especially developed as an art form with young children in mind. These thirty-two-page creations ingeniously combine words and pictures to tell stories preschoolers want to hear again and again. have been especially developed as an art form with young children in mind. These thirty-two-page creations ingeniously combine words and pictures to tell stories preschoolers want to hear again and again. Easy readers Easy readers are the next step up from picture books. They are consciously created to help build the skills of children who are just learning to read. are the next step up from picture books. They are consciously created to help build the skills of children who are just learning to read. Transitional books Transitional books move up one step more to serve as a bridge between easy readers and children's novels, often called move up one step more to serve as a bridge between easy readers and children's novels, often called chapter books chapter books. At all levels, children's fiction covers a range of subjects, themes, and styles and represents some of the best writing we find in the world of literature today.

In the upcoming chapters, we will take a closer look at all these categories. Each one merits special consideration and requires a slightly different approach. Since this book is intended for people who are new to the field of children's books, I will provide a brief history of the different types of children's books as they have developed in U.S. trade publishing so that you can get a sense of how these books came to be. In discussing critical standards, I will use examples from well-known and easily available books that also represent some of the best books of their type. I recommend that you seek out any of these books that you don't know so that you can read them to build your familiarity with the literature.

Throughout the book, I will suggest questions you can ask yourself as you go on to evaluate books on your own. These questions are intended not as a test but to help you begin to make concrete critical judgments about what you are reading. Some of the questions may already seem obvious to you. If so, that's good! You are well on your way to being a critical reader and a responsible reviewer. As you gain experience with book evaluation, these sorts of questions will become second nature to you.

Finally, there is no subst.i.tute for reading widely yourself. The more experience you have as a reader of children's books, the easier it will be for you to think about the one you have just read. One of the most important skills you can acquire is the ability to place a book in an appropriate context. How does it measure up against others of its type? Are Are there, in fact, others of its type? Or is this something fresh and new? One of the greatest thrills for a children's book reviewer is to find the book that is truly innovative and groundbreaking, or completely satisfying and close to perfect. That's what keeps us all reading. there, in fact, others of its type? Or is this something fresh and new? One of the greatest thrills for a children's book reviewer is to find the book that is truly innovative and groundbreaking, or completely satisfying and close to perfect. That's what keeps us all reading.

CHAPTER 2.

Books of Information.

Nonfiction is an essential part of every child's library, whether the child reads it for specific information, recreation, or both. Many children prefer to read nonfiction exclusively, and they may voraciously read every children's book a library owns on the subject of horses or ancient Egypt or basketball. Young readers sometimes go through phases during which they will read only biographies, for example, or books about dinosaurs. Some children like to browse through highly visual books of information, pausing to read captions and perhaps a bit of corresponding text when a picture grabs their attention. Others trek to the library, looking for books on a particular topic they have been a.s.signed to report on at school. Whatever their motivation for reading nonfiction, children deserve to have books of information that are accurate, engaging, and well written.

The past few decades have seen great changes in children's nonfiction, many of which may be traced to the mid-1980s. Nonfiction languished throughout the 1970s, due to cuts in federal funding that previously had supported school library purchases of nonfiction (science in particular), then made a comeback after several t.i.tles were cited as Newbery Honor Books. The impact of the Newbery Medal cannot be underestimated in contemporary children's literature published in the United States. Because the Newbery Medal has a tremendous impact on sales, it continues to set the standard for excellence in children's books. It also seems to have an impact on what sorts of books get published. Unfortunately, the Newbery Committee rarely honors nonfiction, a fact that was brought to the public's attention in 1976 by Milton Meltzer's widely read Horn Book Horn Book essay, "Where Do All the Prizes Go?: The Case for Nonfiction." essay, "Where Do All the Prizes Go?: The Case for Nonfiction."

Although the Newbery Committee had recognized nonfiction prior to this time-in fact, the first Newbery was awarded in 1922 to a nonfiction book, The Story of Mankind The Story of Mankind, by Hendrik Willem van Loon-it was not until the mid-1980s that the honors came more frequently. In 1984, Sugaring Time Sugaring Time, by Kathryn Lasky with photographs by Christopher G. Knight, won a Newbery Honor. In 1986 the Newbery Committee named Rhoda Blumberg's Commodore Perry in the Land of the Shogun Commodore Perry in the Land of the Shogun as an Honor Book; and in 1987, a science book, as an Honor Book; and in 1987, a science book, Volcano: The Eruption and Healing of Mount St. Helens Volcano: The Eruption and Healing of Mount St. Helens, by Patricia Lauber, was cited as such. Finally in 1988 the Newbery Medal was awarded to a nonfiction book for the first time in more than thirty years-to Russell Freedman's Lincoln: A Photobiography Lincoln: A Photobiography.

While there has always been excellent nonfiction published for children, these four books stood out not only for their distinguished writing but also for their eye-catching presentations. Volcano Volcano, for example, was one of the first photo-essays to use color photographs. Today, it would be hard to find a children's photo-essay that didn't. Lincoln Lincoln was generously ill.u.s.trated, so much so that the word "photobiography" was used to call attention to this fact in the book's subt.i.tle, lest potential readers dismiss the book as just another dull, thick black-and-white biography. Since 1988, there have been many biographies for children that imitate the look of Freedman's book by using dozens of photographs to ill.u.s.trate the text. was generously ill.u.s.trated, so much so that the word "photobiography" was used to call attention to this fact in the book's subt.i.tle, lest potential readers dismiss the book as just another dull, thick black-and-white biography. Since 1988, there have been many biographies for children that imitate the look of Freedman's book by using dozens of photographs to ill.u.s.trate the text.

All these books stand out as examples representing two forces at work: the American population, including both children and adults, was being seen as more visually oriented-that is, more responsive to pictures than printed words-and changes in technology allowed publishers to cater to this belief. Almost overnight we began to see newspapers and magazines decrease the number of printed words and increase the numbers of ill.u.s.trations. In publications for children, this trend had the biggest impact on nonfiction. We began to see books of information that relied more on ill.u.s.tration, with many book creators successfully using unconventional approaches in presenting information to children. The books in Joanna Cole and Bruce Degen's innovative series the Magic School Bus were pioneers in this area. Their trademark style of combining fact and fiction, using multiple strands of narrative and healthy doses of humor, has been widely imitated in books of information.

The 1980s also saw a change in att.i.tudes toward fictionalization in children's nonfiction. In earlier decades, it was considered perfectly acceptable for authors writing biographies to invent scenes and dialogue. But biographer Jean Fritz set a new standard for children's nonfiction writers with her highly acclaimed biographies for young readers: Fritz didn't include dialogue unless she could doc.u.ment that her subject had actually said it, showing that it was possible to write lively, engaging biographies without fictionalization. "I don't make up facts, but at the same time I have no desire to write in a factual style," Fritz wrote about her work in 1988. "Nonfiction can be told in a narrative voice and still maintain integrity. The art of fiction is making up facts; the art of nonfiction is using facts to make up a form."

Another change introduced at around the same time was that nonfiction was now being aimed at younger and younger children. Books of information are regularly published for preschoolers, some for children as young as two years old. This suggests a conscious move away from the idea that nonfiction books are mostly "homework" books. Interestingly, some small children, like their older peers, show a definite preference for books of information or "books with real stuff," as they call them. Others just as happily accept both kinds of books, if their adults are open-minded enough to offer them nonfiction as well as storybooks. And a lot of books of information for preschoolers serve a dual purpose and function as a bridge between adult and child, informing two generations simultaneously. A Baby's Coming to Your House! A Baby's Coming to Your House!, by Sh.e.l.ley Moore Thomas, with photographs by Eric Futran, provides young children with basic information about what it's like to live with a newborn, while it also lets parents know what sorts of concerns and questions older preschoolage siblings are likely to have.

Since 1988, there have been a handful of nonfiction Newbery Honor Books, including three more highly visual biographies by Russell Freedman. But, as Jonathan Hunt points out in rea.s.sessment of the nonfiction landscape in "Where Do All the Prizes Go?: Thoughts on the State of Informational Books," thirty years after Meltzer's article first appeared, nonfiction still appears to be a neglected genre, as far as the Newbery Medal is concerned. That does not appear to be the case with the Caldecott; in the same time period, there have been three Caldecott Medal winners that are categorized as nonfiction: Snowflake Bentley Snowflake Bentley, by Jacqueline Briggs Martin, ill.u.s.trated by Mary Azarian; So You Want to Be President So You Want to Be President, by Judith St. George, ill.u.s.trated by David Small; and The Man Who Walked Between the Towers The Man Who Walked Between the Towers, by Mordicai Gerstein, as well as several that were Caldecott Honor Books. Hunt attributes this to the fact that we are living in a "golden age of informational picture books." He also traces the problem to the criteria the Newbery Committee must use that does not allow them to consider ill.u.s.trations unless they detract from the text. For children's nonfiction, which today relies heavily on ill.u.s.tration as well as text to get information across, this would cause the committee to rule out most of the outstanding books of information.

Perhaps with these sorts of concerns in mind, the a.s.sociation for Library Service to Children responsible for overseeing the Newbery and Caldecott awards established a new award for nonfiction in 2001 called the Robert F. Sibert Informational Book Medal. In selecting the winning books each year, the committee considers both text and ill.u.s.trations, in recognition of the importance of the visual elements in nonfiction books. This award, along with the Orbis Pictus Award for Outstanding Nonfiction for Children, established by the National Council of Teachers of English in 1990, gave greater visibility to the genre overall and raised the standards of excellence in children's informational books.

With all the variety in approach and content found in these books of information-not to mention the needs, abilities, and interests of the young readers themselves-there are still critical standards that can be applied across the board in the evaluation of children's nonfiction. You need not be a subject specialist yourself (though it helps!) to evaluate them, but you do need to be a careful and critical reader. Approach the book with a questioning mind as you think about its accuracy, organization, ill.u.s.trations, design, prose, and doc.u.mentation.

AUTHORITY AND RESPONSIBILITY OF THE AUTHOR.

The first question to ask yourself as you approach a book of information is: Who is the author? It may be a name you know and recognize as a reputable writer of information books for children, or it may be a name you have never seen before.

Check for an author bio at the back of the book or on the back flap to try to determine what sort of authority the author has. You might recognize the name Sid Fleischman as a writer of children's novels, for example, but until you read the flap copy of Escape! The Story of the Great Houdini Escape! The Story of the Great Houdini, you might not know that he was trained as a magician, a fact that gives him special insight into the subject of his book. Biographical information often reveals that an author has an educational background related to the subject about which he or she is writing. This is not to say that an author must must have formal education in a particular field in order to write about it; it is merely the first step the responsible critic takes in a systematic evaluation of a book's accuracy. By the same token, you must not a.s.sume that an author's subject expertise guarantees success in writing for children, even if he or she has written outstanding children's nonfiction in the past. Again, an a.s.sessment of the author's authority is just one piece of critical information you may use in building your evaluation of a book. have formal education in a particular field in order to write about it; it is merely the first step the responsible critic takes in a systematic evaluation of a book's accuracy. By the same token, you must not a.s.sume that an author's subject expertise guarantees success in writing for children, even if he or she has written outstanding children's nonfiction in the past. Again, an a.s.sessment of the author's authority is just one piece of critical information you may use in building your evaluation of a book.

Check the acknowledgments next to see if the author has cited the name of a content specialist who read the ma.n.u.script for accuracy. This is an especially important step for writers who do not have a background in the subject about which they are writing, and even those who do often wisely seek the informed opinion of another expert. The children's nonfiction writer often walks a fine line between making a subject comprehensible to children and simplifying to the point of inaccuracy. A content specialist can call an author's attention to areas in which he or she is in danger of having crossed into the realm of inaccuracy. Beyond a.s.suring accuracy, the acknowledgment of expert advice shows that the author respects young readers and believes it is important that they have access to accurate information.

Another indication that the nonfiction writer respects the needs of young readers is the use of inclusive language and ill.u.s.trations. By this we mean that boys and and girls of all racial backgrounds should feel included, rather than excluded, from the social life of the book. Both text and ill.u.s.trations should show a realistic diversity of different types of people. An excellent example of how an author's or ill.u.s.trator's responsible choices in this area enhance the material is girls of all racial backgrounds should feel included, rather than excluded, from the social life of the book. Both text and ill.u.s.trations should show a realistic diversity of different types of people. An excellent example of how an author's or ill.u.s.trator's responsible choices in this area enhance the material is Hominids: A Look Back at Our Ancestors Hominids: A Look Back at Our Ancestors, by Helen Roney Sattler, ill.u.s.trated by Christopher Santoro. Both the author and ill.u.s.trator have avoided the white male bias that has been prevalent in studies of human evolution for decades simply by taking a broader-and more realistic-view of the human family. Beginning with the use of the anthropologically accurate term "hominid" instead of the popular term "early man," Sattler is careful to use language that specifies gender only when gender is significant in her discussion (the height of a female Australopithecus afarensis Australopithecus afarensis versus that of her male counterpart). Similarly, Santoro's black-and-white line drawings show males and females in equal number; and when drawing comparisons between ancient hominids and contemporary humans, people of all races are shown as the norm. versus that of her male counterpart). Similarly, Santoro's black-and-white line drawings show males and females in equal number; and when drawing comparisons between ancient hominids and contemporary humans, people of all races are shown as the norm.

Of course, there will be instances in nonfiction when the subject matter dictates that only one race or gender be represented. One would not expect to see women gratuitously included, for example, among the signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence nor would one expect to see Norwegians present during the construction of the Great Wall of China. But the vast majority of topics covered in the field of children's nonfiction can be approached with a wide vision. There is no excuse in this day and age for a children's book of science experiments, for example, to show only white boys with test tubes.

ORGANIZATION.