As we shall now learn, it was a time of settled government and of internal tranquillity. Except for a brief period of anarchy at the close of the reign of Nero, it was also a time of regular succession to the throne.

Nearly all the emperors were vigorous and capable rulers. The peace and prosperity which they gave to the Roman world amply justify--if justification be needed--the change from republic to empire.

THE NEW RULER

Few persons have set their stamp more indelibly on the pages of history than Octavian, whom we may now call by his more familiar name _Augustus_ ("Majestic"). Augustus was no military genius to dazzle the world with his achievements. He was a cool and pa.s.sionless statesman who took advantage of a memorable opportunity to remake the Roman state, and who succeeded in the attempt. Absolute power, which destroys weaker men, with Augustus brought out the n.o.bler elements of character. From the successful leader of a party he became the wise and impartial ruler of an empire.

THE NEW GOVERNMENT

Augustus had almost unlimited power. His position was that of a king, as supreme as Julius Caesar had ever been. Better, however, than Julius Caesar, Augustus realized that an undisguised autocracy would only alienate public opinion and invite fresh plots and rebellions, Augustus intended to be the real master, but he would also be careful to conceal his authority under republican forms. The emperor was neither king, dictator, nor triumvir. He called himself a republican magistrate-- _Princeps_ [2]--the "First Citizen" of the state.

POWERS ENJOYED BY AUGUSTUS

Augustus gave up the externals, only to keep the essentials, of royalty.

He held the proconsular authority, which extended over the frontier provinces and their legions. He held the tribunician authority, which made his person sacred. As perpetual tribune he could preside over the popular a.s.semblies, manage the Senate and change its membership at pleasure, and veto the acts of almost any magistrate. In the provinces and at home in the capital city the emperor was supreme.

THE EMPIRE UNDER AUGUSTUS

Augustus ruled a vast realm. In it all the dreams of world dominion which Alexander had cherished were more than realized. The empire included nearly the entire circle of the Mediterranean lands. On the west and south it found natural barriers in the Atlantic Ocean and the African desert. On the east the Euphrates River had formed, since the defeat of Cra.s.sus, [3]

the dividing line between Rome and Parthia. The northern frontier, beyond which lay the Germanic barbarians, required, however, additional conquests for its protection.

[Ill.u.s.tration: Map, THE EXPANSION OF ROMAN DOMINIONS 31 B.C.-180 A.D.]

THE DANUBE BOUNDARY

The Danube River made an admirable boundary for much of the Roman territory between the Black Sea and the Rhine. Augustus annexed the district south of the lower course of this river and formed it into the province of Moesia (modern Serbia and Bulgaria). The line of the upper Danube was later secured by the creation of three new provinces on the northern slopes of the Alps. [4] Henceforth the Balkan peninsula and Italy on the northeast, where the Alpine pa.s.ses are low and comparatively easy, were shielded from attack.

THE RHINE BOUNDARY

After the conquests of Julius Caesar in Gaul the Rhine had become the frontier between that country and Germany. Augustus repeatedly sent the legions into western Germany on punitive expeditions to strike terror into its warlike tribes and to inspire respect for Roman power. It is doubtful, however, whether he ever intended to conquer Germany and to convert it into another province. His failure to do so meant that the Germans were not to be Romanized as were their neighbors, the Celts of Gaul. The Rhine continued to be the dividing-line between Roman civilization and Germanic barbarism.

THE AUGUSTAN AGE

The clash of arms on the distant frontiers scarcely disturbed the serenity of the Roman world. Within the boundaries of the empire the Augustan Age was an age of peace and prosperity. The emperor, with unwearied devotion, turned to the task of ruling wisely and well his vast dominions. He followed the example of Julius Caesar in his insistence on just government of the provincials. [5] In Italy he put down brigandage, repaired the public highways, and planted many colonies in unsettled districts. In Rome he established a regular police service, organized the supply of grain and water, and continued, on a larger scale than ever, the public games. So many were his buildings in the capital city that he could boast he had "found Rome of brick and left it of marble." [6] Augustus was also very successful as a religious reformer. He restored numerous temples that had fallen into decay, revived the ancient sacrifices, and celebrated with pomp and majesty the festivals that had been neglected. These reforms gave new vigor to the Roman state religion.

[Ill.u.s.tration: MONUMENTUM ANCYRANUM An inscription on the walls of a ruined temple at Ancyra (modern Angora) in Asia Minor. It is a copy of the record descriptive of the reign of Augustus which that emperor in his will decreed to be inscribed on bronze tablets and placed before his mausoleum at Rome.]

DEIFICATION OF AUGUSTUS

Even during the lifetime of Augustus worship had been offered to him by the provincials. After his death the Senate gave him divine honors and enrolled his name among the G.o.ds. Temples rose in every province to the deified Augustus, and altars smoked with sacrifices to him. Emperor worship spread rapidly over the ancient world and helped to unite all cla.s.ses in allegiance to the new government. It provided a universal religion for a universal empire. Yet just at the time when this new cult was taking root, and in the midst of the happy reign of Augustus, there was born in Bethlehem of Judea the Christ whose religion was to overcome the worship of the emperors and with it all other faiths of pagan antiquity. [7]

67. THE SUCCESSORS OF AUGUSTUS, 14-96 A.D.

JULIAN AND CLAUDIAN CAESARS, 14-68 A.D.

For more than half a century following the death of Augustus his place was filled by emperors who, either by descent or adoption, claimed kinship with himself and the mighty Julius. They are known as the Julian and Claudian Caesars. [8] Though none of these four princes had the political ability of Augustus, two of them (Tiberius and Claudius) were excellent rulers, who ably maintained the standards set by that great emperor. The other two (Caligula and Nero) were vicious tyrants, the recital of whose follies and crimes occupies much s.p.a.ce in the works of ancient historians.

Their doings and misdoings fortunately exerted little influence outside the circle of the imperial court and the capital city. Rome itself might be disturbed by conspiracy and bloodshed, but Italy and the provinces kept their prosperity.

CONQUEST OF BRITAIN BEGUN, 43 A.D.

The reign of Claudius was marked by the beginning of the extension of the empire over Britain. For nearly a hundred years after Caesar's expeditions no further attempt had been made to annex that island. But its nearness to Gaul, already thoroughly Romanized, brought the country within the sphere of Roman influence. The thorough conquest of Britain proved to be no easy task. It was not until the close of the first century that the island, as far north as the Scottish Highlands, was brought under Roman sway. The province of Britannia remained a part of the empire for more than three hundred years.

BURNING OF ROME, 64 A.D.

During Nero's reign half of Rome was laid in ashes by a great fire, which raged for a week. But a new Rome speedily arose. It was a much finer city than the old, with wide, straight streets instead of narrow alleys, and with houses of good stone in place of wooden hovels. Except for the loss of the temples and public buildings, the fire was a blessing in disguise.

FLAVIAN CAESARS, 69-96 A.D.

After the death of Nero the dynasty that traced its descent from Julius and Augustus became extinct. There was no one who could legally claim the vacant throne. The Senate, which in theory had the appointment of a successor, was too weak to exercise its powers. The imperial guard and the legions on the frontiers placed their own candidates in the field. The Roman world fell into anarchy, and Italy became once more the seat of civil war. The throne was finally seized by the able general, Flavius Vespasia.n.u.s, supported by the armies of the East. He and his two sons, t.i.tus and Domitian, are called the Flavian Caesars.

[Ill.u.s.tration: POMPEII]

CAPTURE OF JERUSALEM, 70 A.D.

During the reign of Vespasian a revolt of the Jews was crushed, and Jerusalem was captured by t.i.tus, Vespasian's son. It is said, doubtless with exaggeration, that one million Jews perished in the siege, the most awful that history records. The Holy City, together with the Temple, was destroyed, and a Roman camp was pitched upon the spot. We may still see in Rome the splendid arch that commemorates this tragic event. [9]

[Ill.u.s.tration: PLAN OF JERUSALEM AND ITS ENVIRONS.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: A RELIEF ON THE ARCH OF t.i.tUS The relief shows Roman soldiers bearing the spoils of the Temple at Jerusalem. Among these are two trumpets, the table of the shewbread, and the seven-branched golden candlestick.]

ERUPTION OF VESUVIUS, 79 A.D.

The reign of t.i.tus is chiefly memorable for the destruction of Pompeii and Herculaneum, two cites on the bay of Naples. After long inactivity the volcano of Vesuvius suddenly belched forth torrents of liquid lava and mud, followed by a rain of ashes. Pompeii was covered to a depth of about fifteen feet by the falling cinders. Herculaneum was overwhelmed in a sea of sulphurous mud and lava to a depth of eighty feet in many places. The cities were completely entombed, and in time even their location was forgotten. Modern excavations have disclosed a large part of Pompeii, with its streets, shops, baths, temples, and theaters. The visitor there gains a vivid impression of Roman life during the first century of our era. [10]

68. THE "GOOD EMPERORS," 96-180 A.D.

THE ANTONINE CAESARS

The five rulers--Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius--whose reigns cover the greater part of the second century, are sometimes called the Antonine Caesars, because two of them bore the name Antoninus. They are better known as the "Good Emperors," a t.i.tle which well describes them. Under their just and beneficent government the empire reached its greatest prosperity.

[Ill.u.s.tration: NERVA (Vatican Museum, Rome) A remarkably fine example of Roman portrait statuary.]

TRAJAN THE CONQUEROR

The emperor Trajan rivaled Julius Caesar in military ability and enlarged the Roman world to the widest limits it was ever to attain. His first conquests were in Europe and resulted in the annexation of Dacia, an extensive territory north of the Danube. Thousands of colonists settled in Dacia and spread everywhere the language and arts of Rome. Its modern name (Rumania) bears witness to Rome's abiding influence there. Trajan's campaigns in Asia had less importance, though in appearance they were more splendid. He drove the Parthians from Armenia and conquered the Tigris- Euphrates valley. To hold in subjection such distant regions only increased the difficulty of guarding the frontiers. Trajan's successor, Hadrian, at once abandoned them.

[Ill.u.s.tration: COLUMN OF TRAJAN A bronze statue of Trajan formerly occupying the top of the monument has been replaced by a figure of St Peter. The column is decorated with a continuous spiral relief representing scenes from the Dacian War. About twenty five hundred separate designs are included in this remarkable collection.]

HADRIAN THE ADMINISTRATOR

Hadrian distinguished himself as an administrator. He may be compared with Augustus in his love of peace and in his care for the interests of the provincials. Hadrian made two long journeys throughout the Roman world. On the frontiers he built fortresses and walls, in the provinces he raised baths, aqueducts, theaters, and temples. Scarcely a city throughout the empire lacked some monument to his generosity. Hadrian left behind him the memory of a prince whose life was devoted to the public welfare--the first servant of the state.

[Ill.u.s.tration: WALL OF HADRIAN IN BRITAIN The wall extended between the Tyne and the Solway a distance of seventy miles. It was built of concrete faced with square blocks. The height is nearly twenty feet, the thickness about eight feet. Along the wall were numerous towers and gates and a little to the north of it stretched an earthen rampart protected by a deep ditch. A broad road, lined with seventeen military camps, ran between the two fortifications.]

MARCUS AURELIUS, THE PHILOSOPHER ON THE THRONE

The last of the "Good Emperors," Marcus Aurelius, was a thinker and a student, but he enjoyed little opportunity for meditation. His reign was filled with an almost uninterrupted series of campaigns against the Parthians on the Euphrates and the Germans on the Danube and the Rhine.

These wars revealed the weakness of the frontiers and rapidly growing strength of the barbarians. After the death of Marcus Aurelius the empire entered on its downward course. But before pa.s.sing to this period of our study, we may take a survey of the world under Roman rule, during the two centuries between Augustus and Marcus Aurelius.