17. Show that the three words "gospel, glory, and gold" sum up the princ.i.p.al motives of European colonization in the sixteenth century.

18. Compare the motives which led to the colonization of the New World with those which led to Greek colonization.

19. "The opening of the Atlantic to continuous exploration is the most momentous step in the history of man's occupation of the earth." Does this statement seem to be justified?

FOOTNOTES

[1] Webster, _Readings in Medieval and Modern History_, chapter xxi, "The Travels of Marco Polo"; chapter xxii, "The Aborigines of the New World."

[2] _Ezekiel_, v, 5.

[3] _Isaiah_, x, 12.

[4] See pages 574-575.

[5] See page 35.

[6] See page 347.

[7] See page 488.

[8] See page 611.

[9] Froissart, _Chronicles_, ii, 73.

[10] See page 540.

[11] See page 49.

[12] Not Calcutta.

[13] See page 540.

[14] The Portuguese colonial empire included Ormuz, the west coast of India, Ceylon, Malacca, and various possessions in the Malay Archipelago (Sumatra, Java, Celebes, the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, and New Guinea).

The Portuguese also had many trading posts on the African coast, besides Brazil, which one of their mariners discovered in 1500 A.D. See the map Between pages 628-629.

[15] See page 573.

[16] See page 591.

[17] See page 133.

[18] A Latin translation of Ptolemy's _Geography_, accompanied by maps, was printed for the first time probably in 1462 A.D.

[19] See page 275.

[20] See page 560.

[21] Named San Salvador by Columbus and usually identified with Watling Island.

[22] In Latin, Americus Vespucius.

[23] In 1494 A.D., the demarcation line was shifted about eight hundred miles farther to the west. Six years later, when the Portuguese discovered Brazil, the country was found to lie within their sphere of influence.

[24] Also known as the Mariannes. Magellan called them the Ladrones (Spanish _ladron_, a robber), because of the thievish habits of the natives.

[25] See page 9.

[26] Cuba, Hispaniola (now divided between the republics of Haiti and Santo Domingo), Porto Rico, and Jamaica.

[27] Spanish for the "gilded one."

[28] See the map between pages 628-629. The Philippines, discovered by Magellan in 1521 A.D., also belonged to Spain, though by the demarcation line these islands lay within the Portuguese sphere of influence.

[29] In Spanish _El Camino Real_.

[30] See page 355.

[31] See page 518.

[32] See page 541.

CHAPTER XXVII

THE REFORMATION AND THE RELIGIOUS WARS, 1517-1648 A.D. [1]

228. DECLINE OF THE PAPACY

THE PAPACY IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY

The Papacy, victorious in the long struggle with the Holy Roman Empire, reached during the thirteenth century the height of its temporal power.

The popes at this time were the greatest sovereigns in Europe. They ruled a large part of Italy, had great influence in the affairs of France, England, Spain, and other countries, and in Germany named and deposed emperors. From their capital at Rome they sent forth their legates to every European court and issued the laws binding on western Christendom.

FRICTION BETWEEN CHURCH AND STATE

The universal dominion of the Church proved useful and even necessary in feudal times, when kings were weak and n.o.bles were strong. The Church of the early Middle Ages served as the chief unifying force in Europe. When, however, the kings had repressed feudalism, they took steps to extend their authority over the Church as well. They tried, therefore, to restrict the privileges of ecclesiastical courts, to impose taxes on the clergy, as on their own subjects, and to dictate the appointment of bishops and abbots to office. This policy naturally led to much friction between popes and kings, between Church and State.

PONTIFICATE OF BONIFACE VIII, 1294-1303 A.D.

The Papacy put forth its most extensive claims under Boniface VIII. The character of these claims is shown by two bulls which he issued. The first forbade all laymen, under penalty of excommunication, to collect taxes on Church lands, and all clergymen to pay them. The second announced in unmistakable terms both the spiritual and the temporal supremacy of the popes. "Submission to the Roman pontiff," declared Boniface, "is altogether necessary to salvation for every human creature".

BONIFACE AND PHILIP THE FAIR