The name Renaissance applied, at first, only to the rebirth or revival of men's interest in the literature and art of cla.s.sical antiquity. Italy was the original home of this Renaissance. There it first appeared, there it found widest acceptance, and there it reached its highest development.

From Italy the Renaissance gradually spread beyond the Alps, until it had made the round of western Europe.

ITALIAN CITIES OF THE RENAISSANCE

Italy, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, was a land particularly favorable to the growth of learning and the arts. In northern Italy the great cities of Milan, Pisa, Genoa, Florence, Venice, and many others had early succeeded in throwing off their feudal burdens and had become independent, self-governing communities. Democracy flourished in them, as in the old Greek city-states. n.o.ble birth counted for little; a man of ability and ambition might rise to any place. The fierce party conflicts within their walls stimulated mental activity and helped to make life full, varied, and intense. Their widespread trade and thriving manufactures made them prosperous. Wealth brought leisure, bred a taste for luxury and the refinements of life, and gave means for the gratification of that taste. People wanted to have about them beautiful pictures, statuary, furniture, palaces, and churches; and they rewarded richly the artists who could produce such things. It is not without significance that the birthplace of the Italian Renaissance was democratic, industrial, and wealthy Florence. [2]

INFLUENCE OF THE CLa.s.sIC TRADITION

Italy enjoyed another advantage over the other European countries in its nearness to Rome. Admiration for the ancient Roman civilization, as expressed in literature, art, and law, was felt by all Italians. Wherever they looked, they were reminded of the great past which once had been theirs. Nor was the inheritance of Greece wholly lost. Greek traders and the descendants of Greek colonists in Italy still used their ancient language; all through the medieval centuries there were Italians who studied Greek. The cla.s.sic tradition thus survived in Italy and defied oblivion.

BYZANTINE, ARABIC, AND NORMAN INFLUENCE

In the Middle Ages Italy formed a meeting place of several civilizations.

Byzantine influence was felt both in the north and in the south. The conquest of Sicily by the Arabs made the Italians familiar with the science, art, and poetry of this cultivated people. After the Normans had established themselves in southern Italy and Sicily, they in turn developed a brilliant civilization. [3] From all these sources flowed streams of cultural influence which united in the Renaissance.

[Ill.u.s.tration: GHIBERTI'S BRONZE DOORS AT FLORENCE The second or northern pair of bronze doors of the baptistery at Florence.

Completed by Lorenzo Ghiberti in 1452 A.D. after twenty seven years of labor The ten panels represent scenes from Old Testament history.

Michelangelo p.r.o.nounced these magnificent creations worthy to be the gates of paradise.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: ST. PETER'S, ROME St Peter's, begun in 1506 A.D., was completed in 1667, according to the designs of Bramante, Raphael, Michelangelo, and other celebrated architects. It is the largest church in the world. The central aisle, nave, and choir measure about 600 feet in length, the great dome, 140 feet in diameter, rises to a height of more than 400 feet. A double colonnade encircles the piazza in front of the church. The Vatican is seen to the right of St Peter's.]

210. REVIVAL OF LEARNING IN ITALY

THE CLa.s.sICS IN THE MIDDLE AGES

The literature of Greece and Rome did not entirely disappear in western Europe after the Germanic invasions. The monastery and cathedral schools of the Middle Ages had nourished devoted students of ancient books. The Benedictine monks labored zealously in copying the works of pagan as well as Christian authors. The rise of universities made it possible for the student to pursue a fairly extended course in Latin literature at more than one inst.i.tution of learning. Greek literature, however, was little known in the West. The poems of Homer were read only in a brief Latin summary, and even Aristotle's writings were studied in Latin translations.

DANTE ALIGHIERI 1265-1321 A.D.

Reverence for the cla.s.sics finds constant expression in the writings of the Italian poet Dante. He was a native of Florence, but pa.s.sed much of his life in exile. Dante's most famous work, the _Divine Comedy_, describes an imaginary visit to the other world. Vergil guides him through the realms of h.e.l.l and Purgatory until he meets his lady Beatrice, the personification of love and purity, who conducts him through Paradise. The _Divine Comedy_ gives in artistic verse an epitome of all that medieval men knew and hoped and felt: it is a mirror of the Middle Ages. At the same time it drew much of its inspiration from Graeco-Roman sources.

Athens, for Dante, is the "hearth from which all knowledge glows"; Homer is the "loftiest of poets", and Aristotle is the "master of those who know." This feeling for cla.s.sical antiquity ent.i.tles Dante to rank as a prophet of the Renaissance.

[Ill.u.s.tration: DANTE ALIGHIERI From a fresco, somewhat restored, ascribed to the contemporary artist, Giotto. In the National Museum, Florence.]

DANTE AND THE ITALIAN LEAGUE

Dante exerted a noteworthy influence on the Italian language. He wrote the _Divine Comedy_, not in Latin, but in the vernacular Italian as spoken in Florence. The popularity of this work helped to give currency to the Florentine dialect, and in time it became the literary language of Italy.

Italian was the first of the Romance tongues to a.s.sume a national character.

PETRARCH, 1304-1374 A.D.

Petrarch, a younger contemporary of Dante, and like him a native of Florence, has been called the first modern scholar and man of letters. He devoted himself with tireless energy to cla.s.sical studies. Writing to a friend, Petrarch declares that he has read Vergil, Horace, Livy, and Cicero, "not once, but a thousand times, not cursorily but studiously and intently, bringing to them the best powers of my mind. I tasted in the morning and digested at night. I quaffed as a boy, to ruminate as an old man. These works have become so familiar to me that they cling not to my memory merely, but to the very marrow of my bones."

[Ill.u.s.tration: PETRARCH From a miniature in the Laurentian Library, Florence]

PETRARCH AS A LATIN REVIVALIST

Petrarch himself composed many Latin works and did much to spread a knowledge of Latin authors. He traveled widely in Italy, France, and other countries, searching everywhere for ancient ma.n.u.scripts. When he found in one place two lost orations of Cicero and in another place a collection of Cicero's letters, he was transported with delight. He kept copyists in his house, at times as many as four, busily making transcripts of the ma.n.u.scripts that he had discovered or borrowed. Petrarch knew almost no Greek. His copy of Homer, it is said, he often kissed, though he could not read it.

BOCCACCIO, 1313-1375 A.D.

Petrarch's friend and disciple, Boccaccio, was the first to bring to Italy ma.n.u.scripts of the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_. Having learned some Greek, he wrote out a translation of those epic poems. But Boccaccio's fame to- day rests on the _Decameron_. It is a collection of one hundred stories written in Italian. They are supposed to be told by a merry company of men and women, who, during a plague at Florence, have retired to a villa in the country. The _Decameron_ is the first important work in Italian prose.

Many English writers, notably Chaucer in his _Canterbury Tales_ [4] have gone to it for ideas and plots. The modern short story may be said to date from Boccaccio.

STUDY OF GREEK IN ITALY

The renewed interest in Latin literature, due to Petrarch, Boccaccio, and others, was followed in the fifteenth century by the revival of Greek literature. In 1396 A.D. Chrysoloras, a scholar from Constantinople, began to lecture on Greek in the university of Florence. He afterwards taught in other Italian cities and further aided the growth of h.e.l.lenic studies by preparing a Greek grammar--the first book of its kind. From this time, and especially after the fall of Constantinople in 1453 A.D., many learned Greeks came to Italy, thus transplanting in the West the culture of the East. "Greece had not perished, but had emigrated to Italy."

HUMANISM

To the scholars of the fifteenth century the cla.s.sics opened up a new world of thought and fancy. They were delighted by the fresh, original, and human ideas which they discovered in the pages of Homer, Plato, Cicero, Horace, and Tacitus. Their new enthusiasm for the cla.s.sics came to be known as humanism, [5] or culture. The Greek and Latin languages and literatures were henceforth the "humanities," as distinguished from the old scholastic philosophy and theology.

SPREAD OF HUMANISM IN ITALY

From Florence, as from a second Athens, humanism spread throughout Italy.

At Milan and Venice, at Rome and Naples, men fell to poring over the cla.s.sics. A special feature of the age was the recovery of ancient ma.n.u.scripts from monasteries and cathedrals, where they had often lain neglected and blackened with the dust of ages. Nearly all the Latin works now extant were brought to light by the middle of the fifteenth century.

But it was not enough to recover the ma.n.u.scripts: they had to be safely stored and made accessible to students. So libraries were established, professorships of the ancient languages were endowed, and scholars were given opportunities to pursue their researches. Even the popes shared in this zeal for humanism. One of them founded the Vatican Library at Rome, which has the most valuable collection of ma.n.u.scripts in the world. At Florence the wealthy family of the Medici vied with the popes in the patronage of the new learning.

211. PAPER AND PRINTING

PRINTED BOOKS

The revival of learning was greatly hastened when printed books took the place of ma.n.u.scripts laboriously copied by hand. Printing is a complicated process, and many centuries were required to bring it to perfection. Both paper and movable type had to be invented.

INTRODUCTION OF PAPER

The Chinese at a remote period made paper from some fibrous material. The Arabs seem to have been the first to make linen paper out of flax and rags. The manufacture of paper in Europe was first established by the Moors in Spain. The Arab occupation of Sicily introduced the art into Italy. Paper found a ready sale in Europe, because papyrus and parchment, which the ancients had used as writing materials, were both expensive and heavy. Men now had a material moderate in price, durable, and one that would easily receive the impression of movable type.

DEVELOPMENT OF MOVABLE TYPE

The first step in the development of printing was the use of engraved blocks. Single letters, separate words, and sometimes entire pages of text were cut in hard wood or copper. When inked and applied to writing material, they left a clear impression. The second step was to cast the letters in separate pieces of metal, all of the same height and thickness.

These could then be arranged in any desired way for printing.

GUTENBERG

Movable type had been used for centuries by the Chinese, j.a.panese, and Koreans in the East, and in Europe several printers have been credited with their invention. A German, Johann Gutenberg of Mainz, set up the first printing press with movable type about 1450 A.D., and from it issued the first printed book. This was a Latin translation of the Bible.

[Ill.u.s.tration: AN EARLY PRINTING PRESS Enlarged from the printer's mark of I. B. Ascensius. Used on the t.i.tle pages of books printed by him, 1507-1535 A.D.]

ALDUS AND CAXTON

The new art quickly spread throughout Christian Europe. It met an especially warm welcome in Italy, where people felt so keen a desire for reading and instruction. By the end of the fifteenth century Venice alone had more than two hundred printing presses. Here Aldus Manutius maintained a famous establishment for printing Greek and Latin cla.s.sics. In 1476 A.D.

the English printer, William Caxton, set up his wooden presses within the precincts of Westminster Abbey. To him we owe editions of Chaucer's poems, Sir Thomas Malory's _Morte d'Arthur_, [6] _Aesop's Fables_, and many other works.

INCUNABULA

The books printed in the fifteenth century go by the name of _incunabula_.