The development of the face depends, as I have already shown, upon the enlargement and fusion of the mouth and nose cavities, and upon the later partial separation of the nose and mouth and the nose cavities, leaving the posterior nose open. It depends further upon the growth and specialisation of the face region, of which the elongation is the most prominent indication, and finally upon the development of a prominent external nose. The relations of face to cranium in embryology have already been described. When the medullary tube of the notochord enlarges to form the brain the end of the head bends over to make room for that enlargement. The bending of the head carries the mouth plate, which is to be the mouth, over to the front of the head. The changes which develop the mouth cavity are the growth of the brain and the increase in size of the heart cavity, which expand to the front, leaving the mouth cavity between them. The mouth cavity represents two gill-slits united in the front line.

The nose is formed from two olfactory plates situated just in front of the mouth and in contact with the fore-brain. These olfactory plates grow in size by the increase of tissue, and the resulting pits pa.s.s away from the brain. At first these pits, although widely separated by what is called the nasal process, communicate freely with the mouth. The nasal process includes the origin of the future nose and of the future intermaxillary region of the upper lip.

The human face is modified backward from the vertebrate type. It is an additional ill.u.s.tration of the degeneracy of a series of related structures for the benefit of the organism as a whole. The progress of development of the face in the vertebrates is checked in man. First, as Minot remarks,[196] because the upright position renders it unnecessary to bend the head as in quadrupeds. Second, because the enormous cerebral development has rendered an enlargement of the brain cavity necessary.

This has taken place by extending the cavity over the nose region as well as by enlarging the whole skull. Third, because the development of the face is arrested at an embryonic stage; the production of a long snout being really an advance of development which does not take place in man.

From what has been said of the relations of the dermal bones to the nose and face in the chapter on the skull, it will be obvious that these must follow the same laws as to degeneracy as the skull itself. These checks from degeneracy in arrest of development are apt to affect most obviously the unilateral development of the face. From this results the exaggerated asymmetry so frequently observed.

Jacob Baumler, the founder of the Zoar community of the United States, a religious fanatic, had a very marked asymmetry of the face and the mind of a degenerate. His...o...b..ts were unequal, one being exceedingly large and the other correspondingly small.

The human face at birth is so near that of the monkeys that if only the heads of both were exposed to view at birth it would be difficult for a casual observer to distinguish one from the other. Cope[197] has made the following cla.s.sification of the head and face for comparative study: The relative size of the cerebral to the facial regions, the prominence of the forehead, the prominence of the superciliary regions, the prominence of the alveolar borders of the jaws, the prominence and width of the chin, the relation of length to width of the skull, the prominence of the cheek-bones, the form of the nose, the relative size of the orbits and eyes, the size of the mouth and lips.

At birth in the infant ape the facial region of the skull is smaller than in the adult, the forehead is more prominent, the superciliary ridges are more prominent, the edges of the jaws are more prominent, the chin is less, while the cheek-bones are more prominent, the nose is without a bridge and has short and flat cartilages, the face is flattened, the orbits and eyes are smaller and closer together, the mouth is small and the lips thin.

In the typical infant child as he begins to develop the cerebral part of the skull predominates over the facial more than in the adult, the superciliary ridges are not developed, the alveolar borders are not prominent, the cheek-bones are not prominent, the nose is without a bridge and the cartilages are flat and generally short, the eyes are larger. In this last particular the human infant resembles the lemurs and thus retains an embryonic tendency. In some degenerates this tendency remains unchecked, and the result is unusually large orbits as in Fig. 18. In other instances the human foetus pa.s.ses through this lemurian stage to reach and even exceed the anthropoid in smallness and closeness together.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 18.]

In determining a standard by which to measure the face two principles come into play: the general principle of evolution, and also that aesthetic principle governing profile, which has practically obtained supremacy, after long struggles for existence, from the Egyptian period of the first dynasty until its final acceptance by the Greeks, as shown, for instance, in the Apollo Belvedere. Indeed, so nearly does the modern standard approximate to the Greek, that Kingsley,[198] speaking of modern profiles, remarks that if he were to describe the American type he should be as much inclined to give that name to the form of features of the Apollo Belvedere as any other, since it is quite universal, distinctive, and possesses the same elements of beauty.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 19.]

Among Aryan-speaking races this type would be accepted as the ideal one.

Since each nationality, and peoples of the same nationality, living in different countries do not possess exactly the same type of face, the general presumption of evolution as modifying notions of beauty must also be taken into consideration. In the determination of the extent to which the profile exists the facial angle plays a part. This angle was early pointed out by Camper as a means of distinguishing the relative development of the skull and face. "The basis on which a distinction of nationality is founded," said Camper, "may be displayed by two straight lines (Fig. 19), one of which is to be drawn through the meatus auditorius to the base of the nose, and the other touching the prominent centre of the forehead and falling thence on the most advancing portion of the upper jaw, the head being used in profile. In the angle produced in these two lines may be said to consist not only the distinctions between the skulls of different species of animals, but also those which are found to exist between different races. The angle which the facial line or characteristic line of the visage makes varies from 70 to 80 in the race. All who raise it higher disobey the rules of art (from imitation of the antique). All who bring it lower fall into the likeness of the monkeys. If I cause the facial line to fall in front I have the antique head. If I incline it backward I have the head of a negro. If I incline it still further I have the head of a monkey; inclined still more I have the head of a dog; and, lastly, that of a goose."

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 20.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 21. COLOURED CRIMINAL YOUTH.]

This is excellently shown by the following ill.u.s.trations. Fig. 20 is the head of Johanna, the female chimpanzee of Central Park, New York City.

This head has (by Camper's method) an angle between 40 and 50. The brain of this animal occupies one-third of the skull, and the jaws two-thirds.

The negro criminal (Fig. 21) has an angle of about 70. Here the brain is encroaching, while the jaws are receding. The Caucasic race (Fig. 22) has an angle of 75 to 80. In many cases the frontal development of the brain and resultant recession of the jaws produce an angle of 90, with a general result not unlike the Apollo.

Although the general outlines of facial evolution as sighted by Camper are in accord with my own views, yet, as regards accuracy, this angle is not an ideal from whence to study face degeneracy, since the line does not fall low enough to include the chin, and also, as I have elsewhere shown, in the degenerate, the ear varies as much as one to one and one-half inches upon heads of different individuals. Frequently, in the degenerate cla.s.ses, the ears of the same individual differ as much as one inch in height.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 22.]

An ideal line, from whence to study a degenerate face, should be drawn perpendicularly from the supra-orbital ridge intersecting the upper and lower jaw and chin. While the chin of the Apollo Belvedere falls slightly inside of this line, yet this is hardly perceptible. Having now fixed a standard from which to study the degenerate face, it should be remembered that jaws which protrude beyond this line are atavistic, and those which recede are even more degenerate.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 23.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 24.]

The angle between 80 and 90 may be accepted as an ideal by which to study degeneracy. This factor alone, however, can not be accepted: the evolution of the face itself must be also taken into consideration. It is obvious that in the struggle for existence and supremacy between the brain and the face (both expressions of vertebrate advance), stress may be concentrated on one particular part. Whence result certain factors which modify the conclusion to be drawn from the facial angle. The hollowed out condition of the face from the supra-orbital ridges down to and including the base of the nose (ill.u.s.trated in Johanna) merits attention here. The same condition is observable in the negro, only it extends farther down and includes both jaws. One jaw, however, may alone be affected. Most of the Chinese, j.a.panese, Eskimo, Polynesians, Australians, Aryan Caucasic Africans, and some American Indians, possess this feature. As has been already remarked, the facial regions of man and the ape up to a certain point are similar. Not until the sense organs of man begin to develop are changes noticeable in facial expression. If, through heredity or const.i.tutional defect, that part of the brain which presides over development of the facial bones lose its control, arrest of development of that particular tissue results at any period between birth and the twenty-fifth year, while other parts of the head and face continue to develop. With this understanding Camper's method can be safely applied to certain cases. If a line be dropped from the supra-orbital ridge to the upper lip in its most prominent part (Fig. 23), it will be found here that in place of the face presenting the full appearance ill.u.s.trated in Fig. 19 and Fig. 22, it has the hollow appearance observable in Johanna and in Fig. 25. This is due to arrest of development of the bones of the face and the upper jaw. The extent of depression depends upon the time of arrest, the frontal development of the skull, and the position of the upper jaw.

The nose may present and retain the appearance of that of a child six months old, or any other shape up to normal development, but will not protrude from the face nor present a normal symmetrical appearance. It has the appearance of having been driven into the face. It has been claimed that the bridge of the nose is pushed out by the advancing brain and cranium. This may be true to a certain extent, but one is not necessarily dependent on the other, since an arrested nose is frequently found in a fully developed cranium (Fig. 24), which is not unlike Fig. 23 and a "throw-back" to Fig. 20. This is due to the fact that in the struggle for existence the bones of the face and skull base became arrested early in life, while the brain and cranium continued to advance. The lower jaw is usually normal since, while the tendency to arrest may be present in a slight degree, mobility of the jaw often causes such increased nutrition of the part that normal development in many cases thereby results.

Overlooking this fact has often led to the a.s.sertion that a large lower jaw exists when, in reality, this appearance is due to an arrest of the face and upper jaw, the lower remaining normal. The expression of degeneracy is rather in the arrest of the upper jaw than in the normal lower (see Fig. 23).

The criminals of the Elmira Reformatory, and those of the Pontiac Reformatory, present marked instances of this stigma, nearly 50 per cent.

being so affected. Arrest of the lower jaw may occur alone, or may be a.s.sociated with arrest of development of the face (Fig. 25). When this is the case a deep, broad groove extends from below the eyes downward and backward to the lower jaw, also showing a lateral arrest of development, producing a hatchet-shaped face. The upper part of the face may be normal, and the lower jaw arrested antero-posteriorly.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 25.]

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 26.]

It has been broadly a.s.serted that this is an atavism, but more probably it is an expression of that phase of evolution whereby both jaws are becoming subservient to the advance in evolution represented by the gains of the brain and cranium. When both jaws are arrested Camper's disobedience of the rules of art, whereby the facial angle is increased over 90, occurs.

This condition has been found in many degenerates. Almost invariably in connection with the arrest of development of the face occurs arrest of the bones of the nose. The diameter of the nasal cavities is much smaller than normal. Owing to the unstable condition of the nervous system there is also hypertrophy of the turbinate bone and mucous membrane of the nose and throat, tonsil hypertrophy, arrested development of the chest walls and lung tissue, and unstable mucous membranes throughout the lungs. Such a degenerate face, body, and unstable nervous system is a fruitful soil for the germs of tuberculosis. In these cases even a casual glance will show that the two halves of the face and head are not symmetrically developed. It looks as though the two halves were made separately and joined together, one half higher than the other. This condition is excellently ill.u.s.trated in Fig. 26. In this case the left half is higher than the right. (Frequently the right side is the higher.) There is arrest of the upper and lower jaw. The left corner of the mouth is higher than the right. The left half of the lower jaw is higher than the right, the body of the lower jaw is longer, the ramus is shorter. The left eye and ear are higher. The left supra-orbital ridge is higher. The ears stand almost at right angles, while the malar processes are quite prominent.

Viewing the face from a three-quarters' angle (which should always be done in making an examination, or photographing the degenerate face for study) it will be found that there is not only arrest of development of the bones of the face, but also of the lower jaw.

As already stated in the chapter on the cranium, the nasal bones belong to the dermal category, their special function as nose bones being a later acquisition. In their acquirement of this function they have pa.s.sed through many changes, especially as the human face in its nasal features has a.s.sumed an embryonic type. In consequence, like all late embryonic acquisitions, degeneracy is apt to involve the nose.

When arrest of development of the face takes place stigmata of the nasal bones always result. Under such conditions narrowing or arrest of development of the entire nasal cavity ensues.

Deformities of the nasal septum, deflection, hypertrophy and atrophy of the turbinate bones, deformities of the maxillary sinus, hypertrophy of the mucous membrane and polypi are common. Deflection of the external nose is a very common stigma of degeneracy. Not only is the septum involved, but also the outer plates of the nasal cavity. So unstable are the bones of the face in their development that it is not an uncommon thing for the nasal process of the upper jaw on one side to be much more developed than the other. Not only is the nasal septum involved, but also the bones of the face as well, producing a fulness on the long side of the face. This stigma is very common among criminal youth. In such cases the deflected septum is due to the development of the outer plate and not _vice versa_.

Deflection of the septum to the left may entirely obliterate (as in Fig.

27) the left nasal cavity. If one nostril of a rabbit be permanently closed, after the animal has attained its full growth, the nasal cavity of the affected side remains undeveloped and facial asymmetry results.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 27.]

Therefore two factors are common: first, the arrest of development of the bones of the nose, and second, the clogging of the cavity, both active agents in producing a closure, resulting in mouth-breathing.

Coexisting with these is often (as in Fig. 27) smallness of the upper jaw. In the same connection grooved teeth occur, as in the same ill.u.s.tration.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 28.]

The turbinated (Fig. 28) bones are often hypertrophied, as is also the nasal septum (vomer or dividing bone) and the mucous membrane. This results from the general instability of the nervous system with its special expression in increased blood supply, whence occur overgrowth in and imperfect work by the mucous membrane, causing mouth-breathing and polypi, which again increase this defect. All these predispose to germ invasion.

In the figure are also shown grooves upon the teeth. Sufficient symptoms are here evident to stamp this as a marked degenerate skull.

Hypertrophy of the turbinate bones, septum, and mucous membrane, as it occurs among degenerates, appears in Fig. 29, and is due, first, to an unstable nervous system, and, second, a larger system of blood vessels which ramify through these parts. Stimulation, together with the stenosis (narrowing), tend to produce a closure. Still further, irritation and an unstable mucous membrane results, with polypi or adenoid vegetation following.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 29.]

Not only do deflection of septum and hypertrophy of the nasal bones occur, but the antrum (cavity behind the nose) may be almost entirely obliterated, while the upper jaw is arrested (Fig. 29). The antrum may be entirely wanting, as in Fig. 30; so unstable may these tissues develop that the nasal cavities may become almost entirely obliterated, as observed in this figure.