D--Bench-frame.]

The powder into which the charcoal is crushed is thrown on to a sieve whose bottom consists of interwoven withes of wood. The sieve is drawn backward and forward over two wooden or iron rods placed in a triangular position on a tub, or over a bench-frame set on the floor of the building; the powder which falls into the tub or on to the floor is of suitable size, but the pieces of small charcoal which remain in the sieve are emptied out and thrown back under the stamps.

[Ill.u.s.tration 375 (Clay Washing): A--Screen. B--Poles. C--Shovel.

D--Two-wheeled cart. E--Hand-sieve. F--Narrow boards. G--Box. H--Covered pit.]

When the earth is dug up it is first exposed to the sun that it may dry.

Later on it is thrown with a shovel on to a screen--set up obliquely and supported by poles,--made of thick, loosely woven hazel withes, and in this way the fine earth and its small lumps pa.s.s through the holes of the screen, but the clods and stones do not pa.s.s through, but run down to the ground. The earth which pa.s.ses through the screen is conveyed in a two-wheeled cart to the works and there sifted. This sieve, which is not dissimilar to the one described above, is drawn backward and forward upon narrow boards of equal length placed over a long box; the powder which falls through the sieve into the box is suitable for the mixture; the lumps that remain in the sieve are thrown away by some people, but by others they are placed under the stamps. This powdered earth is mixed with powdered charcoal, moistened, and thrown into a pit, and in order that it may remain good for a long time, the pit is covered up with boards so that the mixture may not become contaminated.

[Ill.u.s.tration 377 (Implements for Furnace Work): A--Furnace. B--Ladder.

C--Board fixed to it. D--Hoe. E--Five-toothed rake. F--Wooden spatula.

G--Broom. H--Rammer. I--Rammer, same diameter. K--Two wooden spatulas.

L--Curved blade. M--Bronze rammer. N--Another bronze rammer. O--Wide spatula. P--Rod. Q--Wicker basket. R--Two buckets of leather in which water is carried for putting out a conflagration, should the _officina_ catch fire. S--Bra.s.s pump with which the water is squirted out. T--Two hooks. V--Rake. X--Workman beating the clay with an iron implement.]

They take two parts of pulverised charcoal and one part of powdered earth, and mix them well together with a rake; the mixture is moistened by pouring water over it so that it may easily be made into shapes resembling s...o...b..a.l.l.s; if the powder be light it is moistened with more water, if heavy with less. The interior of the new furnace is lined with lute, so that the cracks in the walls, if there are any, may be filled up, but especially in order to preserve the rock from injury by fire. In old furnaces in which ore has been melted, as soon as the rocks have cooled the a.s.sistant chips away, with a spatula, the accretions which adhere to the walls, and then breaks them up with an iron hoe or a rake with five teeth. The cracks of the furnace are first filled in with fragments of rock or brick, which he does by pa.s.sing his hand into the furnace through its mouth, or else, having placed a ladder against it, he mounts by the rungs to the upper open part of the furnace. To the upper part of the ladder a board is fastened that he may lean and recline against it. Then standing on the same ladder, with a wooden spatula, he smears the furnace walls over with lute; this spatula is four feet long, a digit thick, and for a foot upward from the bottom it is a palm wide, or even wider, generally two and a half digits. He spreads the lute equally over the inner walls of the furnace. The mouth of the copper pipe[9] should not protrude from the lute, lest sows[10]

form round about it and thus impede the melting, for the furnace bellows could not force a blast through them. Then the same a.s.sistant throws a little powdered charcoal into the pit of the forehearth and sprinkles it with pulverised earth. Afterward, with a bucket he pours water into it and sweeps this all over the forehearth pit, and with the broom drives the turbid water into the furnace hearth and likewise sweeps it out.

Next he throws the mixed and moistened powder into the furnace, and then a second time mounting the steps of the ladder, he introduces the rammer into the furnace and pounds the powder so that the hearth is made solid.

The rammer is rounded and three palms long; at the bottom it is five digits in diameter, at the top three and a half, therefore it is made in the form of a truncated cone; the handle of the rammer is round and five feet long and two and a half digits thick; the upper part of the rammer, where the handle is inserted, is bound with an iron band two digits wide. There are some who, instead, use two rounded rammers three and a half digits in diameter, the same at the bottom as at the top.

Some people prefer two wooden spatulas, or a rammer spatula.

In a similar manner, mixed and moistened powder is thrown and pounded with a rammer in the forehearth pit, which is outside the furnace. When this is nearly completed, powder is again put in, and pushed with the rammer up toward the protruding copper pipe, so that from a point a digit under the mouth of the copper pipe the hearth slopes down into the crucible of the forehearth,[11] and the metal can run down. The same is repeated until the forehearth pit is full, then afterward this is hollowed out with a curved blade; this blade is of iron, two palms and as many digits long, three digits wide, blunt at the top and sharp at the bottom. The crucible of the forehearth must be round, a foot in diameter and two palms deep if it has to contain a _centumpondium_ of lead, or if only seventy _librae_, then three palms in diameter and two palms deep like the other. When the forehearth has been hollowed out it is pounded with a round bronze rammer. This is five digits high and the same in diameter, having a curved round handle one and a half digits thick; or else another bronze rammer is used, which is fashioned in the shape of a cone, truncated at the top, on which is imposed another cut away at the bottom, so that the middle part of the rammer may be grasped by the hand; this is six digits high, and five digits in diameter at the lower end and four at the top. Some use in its place a wooden spatula two and a half palms wide at the lower end and one palm thick.

The a.s.sistant, having prepared the forehearth, returns to the furnace and besmears both sides as well as the top of the mouth with simple lute. In the lower part of the mouth he places lute that has been dipped in charcoal dust, to guard against the risk of the lute attracting to itself the powder of the hearth and vitiating it. Next he lays in the mouth of the furnace a straight round rod three quarters of a foot long and three digits in diameter. Afterward he places a piece of charcoal on the lute, of the same length and width as the mouth, so that it is entirely closed up; if there be not at hand one piece of charcoal so large, he takes two instead. When the mouth is thus closed up, he throws into the furnace a wicker basket full of charcoal, and in order that the piece of charcoal with which the mouth of the furnace is closed should not then fall out, the master holds it in with his hand. The pieces of charcoal which are thrown into the furnace should be of medium size, for if they are large they impede the blast of the bellows and prevent it from blowing through the tap-hole of the furnace into the forehearth to heat it. Then the master covers over the charcoal, placed at the mouth of the furnace, with lute and extracts the wooden rod, and thus the furnace is prepared. Afterward the a.s.sistant throws four or five larger baskets full of charcoal into the furnace, filling it right up; he also throws a little charcoal into the forehearth, and places glowing coals upon it in order that it may be kindled, but in order that the flames of this fire should not enter through the tap-hole of the furnace and fire the charcoal inside, he covers the tap-hole with lute or closes it with fragments of pottery. Some do not warm the forehearth the same evening, but place large charcoals round the edge of it, one leaning on the other; those who follow the first method sweep out the forehearth in the morning, and clean out the little pieces of charcoal and cinders, while those who follow the latter method take, early in the morning, burning firebrands, which have been prepared by the watchman of the works, and place them on the charcoal.

At the fourth hour the master begins his work. He first inserts a small piece of glowing coal into the furnace, through the bronze nozzle-pipe of the bellows, and blows up the fire with the bellows; thus within the s.p.a.ce of half an hour the forehearth, as well as the hearth, becomes warmed, and of course more quickly if on the preceding day ores have been smelted in the same furnace, but if not then it warms more slowly.

If the hearth and forehearth are not warmed before the ore to be smelted is thrown in, the furnace is injured and the metals lost; or if the powder from which both are made is damp in summer or frozen in winter, they will be cracked, and, giving out a sound like thunder, they will blow out the metals and other substances with great peril to the workmen. After the furnace has been warmed, the master throws in slags, and these, when melted, flow out through the tap-hole into the forehearth. Then he closes up the tap-hole at once with mixed lute and charcoal dust; this plug he fastens with his hand to a round wooden rammer that is five digits thick, two palms high, with a handle three feet long. The smelter extracts the slags from the forehearth with a hooked bar; if the ore to be smelted is rich in gold or silver he puts into the forehearth a _centumpondium_ of lead, or half as much if the ore is poor, because the former requires much lead, the latter little; he immediately throws burning firebrands on to the lead so that it melts. Afterward he performs everything according to the usual manner and order, whereby he first throws into the furnace as many cakes melted from pyrites[12], as he requires to smelt the ore; then he puts in two wicker baskets full of ore with litharge and hearth-lead[13], and stones which fuse easily by fire of the second order, all mixed together; then one wicker basket full of charcoal, and lastly the slags. The furnace now being filled with all the things I have mentioned, the ore is slowly smelted; he does not put too much of it against the back wall of the furnace, lest sows should form around the nozzles of the bellows and the blast be impeded and the fire burn less fiercely.

This, indeed, is the custom of many most excellent smelters, who know how to govern the four elements[14]. They combine in right proportion the ores, which are part earth, placing no more than is suitable in the furnaces; they pour in the needful quant.i.ty of water; they moderate with skill the air from the bellows; they throw the ore into that part of the fire which burns fiercely. The master sprinkles water into each part of the furnace to dampen the charcoal slightly, so that the minute parts of ore may adhere to it, which otherwise the blast of the bellows and the force of the fire would agitate and blow away with the fumes. But as the nature of the ores to be smelted varies, the smelters have to arrange the hearth now high, now low, and to place the pipe in which the nozzles of the bellows are inserted sometimes on a great and sometimes at a slight angle, so that the blast of the bellows may blow into the furnace in either a mild or a vigorous manner. For those ores which heat and fuse easily, a low hearth is necessary for the work of the smelters, and the pipe must be placed at a gentle angle to produce a mild blast from the bellows. On the contrary, those ores that heat and fuse slowly must have a high hearth, and the pipe must be placed at a steep incline in order to blow a strong blast of the bellows, and it is necessary, for this kind of ore, to have a very hot furnace in which slags, or cakes melted from pyrites, or stones which melt easily in the fire[15], are first melted, so that the ore should not settle in the hearth of the furnace and obstruct and choke up the tap-hole, as the minute metallic particles that have been washed from the ores are wont to do. Large bellows have wide nozzles, for if they were narrow the copious and strong blast would be too much compressed and too acutely blown into the furnace, and then the melted material would be chilled, and would form sows around the nozzle, and thus obstruct the opening into the furnace, which would cause great damage to the proprietors' property. If the ores agglomerate and do not fuse, the smelter, mounting on the ladder placed against the side of the furnace, divides the charge with a pointed or hooked bar, which he also pushes down into the pipe in which the nozzle of the bellows is placed, and by a downward movement dislodges the ore and the sows from around it.

After a quarter of an hour, when the lead which the a.s.sistant has placed in the forehearth is melted, the master opens the tap-hole of the furnace with a tapping-bar. This bar is made of iron, is three and a half feet long, the forward end pointed and a little curved, and the back end hollow so that into it may be inserted a wooden handle, which is three feet long and thick enough to be well grasped by the hand. The slag first flows from the furnace into the forehearth, and in it are stones mixed with metal or with the metal adhering to them partly altered, the slag also containing earth and solidified juices. After this the material from the melted pyrites flows out, and then the molten lead contained in the forehearth absorbs the gold and silver. When that which has run out has stood for some time in the forehearth, in order to be able to separate one from the other, the master first either skims off the slags with the hooked bar or else lifts them off with an iron fork; the slags, as they are very light, float on the top. He next draws off the cakes of melted pyrites, which as they are of medium weight hold the middle place; he leaves in the forehearth the alloy of gold or silver with the lead, for these being the heaviest, sink to the bottom.

As, however, there is a difference in slags, the uppermost containing little metal, the middle more, and the lowest much, he puts these away separately, each in its own place, in order that to each heap, when it is re-smelted, he may add the proper fluxes, and can put in as much lead as is demanded for the metal in the slag; when the slag is re-melted, if it emits much odour, there is some metal in it; if it emits no odour, then it contains none. He puts the cakes of melted pyrites away separately, as they were nearest in the forehearth to the metal, and contain a little more of it than the slags; from all these cakes a conical mound is built up, by always placing the widest of them at the bottom. The hooked bar has a hook on the end, hence its name; otherwise it is similar to other bars.

[Ill.u.s.tration 383 (Blast Furnaces): A, B, C--Three furnaces. At the first stands the smelter, who with a ladle pours the alloy out of the forehearth into the moulds. D--Forehearth. E--Ladle. F--Moulds. G--Round wooden rammer. H--Tapping-bar. At the second furnace stands the smelter, who opens the tap-hole with his tapping-bar. The a.s.sistant, standing on steps placed against the third furnace which has been broken open, chips off the accretions. I--Steps. K--Spatula. L--The other hooked bar.

M--Mine captain carrying a cake, in which he has stuck the pick, to the scales to be weighed. N--Another mine captain opens a chest in which his things are kept.]

Afterward the master closes up the tap-hole and fills the furnace with the same materials I described above, and again, the ores having been melted, he opens the tap-hole, and with a hooked bar extracts the slags and the cakes melted from pyrites, which have run down into the forehearth. He repeats the same operation until a certain and definite part of the ore has been smelted, and the day's work is at an end; if the ore was rich the work is finished in eight hours; if poor, it takes a longer time. But if the ore was so rich as to be smelted in less than eight hours, another operation is in the meanwhile combined with the first, and both are performed in the s.p.a.ce of ten hours. When all the ore has been smelted, he throws into the furnace a basket full of litharge or hearth-lead, so that the metal which has remained in the accretions may run out with these when melted. When he has finally drawn out of the forehearth the slags and the cakes melted from pyrites, he takes out, with a ladle, the lead alloyed with gold or silver and pours it into little iron or copper pans, three palms wide and as many digits deep, but first lined on the inside with lute and dried by warming, lest the glowing molten substances should break through. The iron ladle is two palms wide, and in other respects it is similar to the others, all of which have a sufficiently long iron shaft, so that the fire should not burn the wooden part of the handle. When the alloy has been poured out of the forehearth, the smelter foreman and the mine captain weigh the cakes.

Then the master breaks out the whole of the mouth of the furnace with a crowbar, and with that other hooked bar, the rabble and the five-toothed rake, he extracts the accretions and the charcoal. This crowbar is not unlike the other hooked one, but larger and wider; the handle of the rabble is six feet long and is half of iron and half of wood. The furnace having cooled, the master chips off the accretions clinging to the walls with a rectangular spatula six digits long, a palm broad, and sharp on the front edge; it has a round handle four feet long, half of it being of iron and half of wood. This is the first method of smelting ores.

Because they generally consist of unequal const.i.tuents, some of which melt rapidly and others slowly, the ores rich in gold and silver cannot be smelted as rapidly or as easily by the other methods as they can by the first method, for three important reasons. The first reason is that, as often as the closed tap-hole of the furnace is opened with a tapping-bar, so often can the smelter observe whether the ore is melting too quickly or too slowly, or whether it is flaming in scattered bits, and not uniting in one ma.s.s; in the first case the ore is smelting too slowly and not without great expense; in the second case the metal mixes with the slag which flows out of the furnace into the forehearth, wherefore there is the expense of melting it again; in the third case, the metal is consumed by the violence of the fire. Each of these evils has its remedy; if the ore melts slowly or does not come together, it is necessary to add some amount of fluxes which melt the ore; or if they melt too readily, to decrease the amount.

The second reason is that each time that the furnace is opened with a tapping-bar, it flows out into the forehearth, and the smelter is able to test the alloy of gold and lead or of silver with lead, which is called _stannum_.[16] When the tap-hole is opened the second or third time, this test shows us whether the alloy of gold or silver has become richer, or whether the lead is too debilitated and wanting in strength to absorb any more gold or silver. If it has become richer, some portion of lead added to it should renew its strength; if it has not become richer, it is poured out of the forehearth that it may be replaced with fresh lead.

The third reason is that if the tap-hole of the furnace is always open when the ore and other things are being smelted, the fluxes, which are easily melted, run out of the furnace before the rich gold and silver ores, for these are sometimes of a kind that oppose and resist melting by the fire for a longer period. It follows in this case, that some part of the ore is either consumed or is mixed with the accretions, and as a result little lumps of ore not yet melted are now and then found in the accretions. Therefore when these ores are being smelted, the tap-hole of the furnace should be closed for a time, as it is necessary to heat and mix the ore and the fluxes at the same time; since the fluxes fuse more rapidly than the ore, when the molten fluxes are held in the furnace, they thus melt the ore which does not readily fuse or mix with the lead.

The lead absorbs the gold or silver, just as tin or lead when melted in the forehearth absorbs the other unmelted metal which has been thrown into it. But if the molten matter is poured upon that which is not molten, it runs off on all sides and consequently does not melt it. It follows from all this that ores rich in gold or silver, when put into a furnace with its tap-hole always open, cannot for that reason be smelted so successfully as in one where the tap-hole is closed for a time, so that during this time the ore may be melted by the molten fluxes.

Afterward, when the tap-hole has been opened, they flow into the forehearth and mix there with the molten lead. This method of smelting the ores is used by us and by the Bohemians.

[Ill.u.s.tration 385 (Blast Furnaces): A, B--Two furnaces. C--Forehearths.

D--Dipping-pot. The smelter standing by the first furnace draws off the slags with a hooked bar. E--Hooked bar. F--Slags. G--The a.s.sistant drawing a bucket of water which he pours over the glowing slags to quench them. H--Basket made of twigs of wood intertwined. I--Rabble.

K--Ore to be smelted. L--The master stands at the other furnace and prepares the forehearth by ramming it with two rammers. M--Crowbar.]

The three remaining methods of smelting ores are similar to each other in that the tap-holes of the furnaces always remain open, so that the molten metals may continually run out. They differ greatly from each other, however, for the tap-hole of the first of this kind is deeper in the furnace and narrower than that of the third, and besides it is invisible and concealed. It easily discharges into the forehearth, which is one and a half feet higher than the floor of the building, in order that below it to the left a dipping-pot can be made. When the forehearth is nearly full of the slags, which well up from the invisible tap-hole of the furnace, they are skimmed off from the top with a hooked bar; then the alloy of gold or silver with lead and the melted pyrites, being uncovered, flow into the dipping-pot, and the latter are made into cakes; these cakes are broken and thrown back into the furnace so that all their metal may be smelted out. The alloy is poured into little iron moulds.

The smelter, besides lead and cognate things, uses fluxes which combine with the ore, of which I gave a sufficient account in Book VII. The metals which are melted from ores that fuse readily in the fire, are profitable because they are smelted in a short time, while those which are difficult to fuse are not as profitable, because they take a long time. When fluxes remain in the furnace and do not melt, they are not suitable; for this reason, accretions and slags are the most convenient for smelting, because they melt quickly. It is necessary to have an industrious and experienced smelter, who in the first place takes care not to put into the furnace more ores mixed with fluxes than it can accommodate.

The powder out of which this furnace hearth and the adjoining forehearth and the dipping-pot are usually made, consists mostly of equal proportions of charcoal dust and of earth, or of equal parts of the same and of ashes. When the hearth of the furnace is prepared, a rod that will reach to the forehearth is put into it, higher up if the ore to be smelted readily fuses, and lower down if it fuses with difficulty. When the dipping-pot and forehearth are finished, the rod is drawn out of the furnace so that the tap-hole is open, and through it the molten material flows continuously into the forehearth, which should be very near the furnace in order that it may keep very hot and the alloy thus be made purer. If the ore to be smelted does not melt easily, the hearth of the furnace must not be made too sloping, lest the molten fluxes should run down into the forehearth before the ore is smelted, and the metal thus remain in the accretions on the sides of the furnace. The smelter must not ram the hearth so much that it becomes too hard, nor make the mistake of ramming the lower part of the mouth to make it hard, for it could not breathe[17], nor could the molten matter flow freely out of the furnace. The ore which does not readily melt is thrown as much as possible to the back of the furnace, and toward that part where the fire burns very fiercely, so that it may be smelted longer. In this way the smelter may direct it whither he wills. Only when it glows at the part near the bellows' nozzle does it signify that all the ore is smelted which has been thrown to the side of the furnace in which the nozzles are placed. If the ore is easily melted, one or two wicker baskets full are thrown into the front part of the furnace so that the fire, being driven back by it, may also smelt the ore and the sows that form round about the nozzles of the bellows. This process of smelting is very ancient among the Tyrolese[18], but not so old among the Bohemians.

[Ill.u.s.tration 387 (Blast Furnaces): A, B--Two furnaces. C--Forehearth.

D--Dipping-pots. The master stands at the one furnace and draws away the slags with an iron fork. E--Iron fork. F--Wooden hoe with which the cakes of melted pyrites are drawn out. G--The forehearth crucible: one-half inside is to be seen open in the other furnace. H--The half outside the furnace. I--The a.s.sistant prepares the forehearth, which is separated from the furnace that it may be seen. K--Bar. L--Wooden rammer. M--Ladder. N--Ladle.]

The second method of smelting ores stands in a measure midway between that one performed in a furnace of which the tap-hole is closed intermittently, and the first of the methods performed in a furnace where the tap-hole is always open. In this manner are smelted the ores of gold and silver that are neither very rich nor very poor, but mediocre, which fuse easily and are readily absorbed by the lead. It was found that in this way a large quant.i.ty of ore could be smelted at one operation without much labour or great expense, and could thus be alloyed with lead. This furnace has two crucibles, one of which is half inside the furnace and half outside, so that the lead being put into this crucible, the part of the lead which is in the furnace absorbs the metals of the ores which easily fuse; the other crucible is lower, and the alloy and the molten pyrites run into it. Those who make use of this method of smelting, tap the alloy of gold or silver with lead from the upper crucible once or twice if need be, and throw in other lead or litharge, and each absorbs that flux which is nearest. This method of smelting is in use in Styria[19].

[Ill.u.s.tration 389 (Furnaces): A, B--Two furnaces. C--Tap-holes of furnaces. D--Forehearths. E--Their tap-holes. F--Dipping-pots. G--At the one furnace stands the smelter carrying a wicker basket full of charcoal. At the other furnace stands a smelter who with the third hooked bar breaks away the material which has frozen the tap-hole of the furnace. H--Hooked bar. I--Heap of charcoal. K--Barrow on which is a box made of wicker work in which the coals are measured. L--Iron spade.]

The furnace in the third method of smelting ores has the tap-hole likewise open, but the furnace is higher and wider than the others, and its bellows are larger; for these reasons a larger charge of the ore can be thrown into it. When the mines yield a great abundance of ore for the smelter, they smelt in the same furnace continuously for three days and three nights, providing there be no defect either in the hearth or in the forehearth. In this kind of a furnace almost every kind of accretion will be found. The forehearth of the furnace is not unlike the forehearth of the first furnace of all, except that it has a tap-hole.

However, because large charges of ore are smelted uninterruptedly, and the melted material runs out and the slags are skimmed off, there is need for a second forehearth crucible, into which the molten material runs through an opened tap-hole when the first is full. When a smelter has spent twelve hours' labour on this work, another always takes his place. The ores of copper and lead and the poorest ores of gold and silver are smelted by this method, because they cannot be smelted by the other three methods on account of the greater expense occasioned. Yet by this method a _centumpondium_ of ore containing only one or two _drachmae_ of gold, or only a half to one _uncia_, of silver,[20] can be smelted; because there is a large amount of ore in each charge, smelting is continuous, and without expensive fluxes such as lead, litharge, and hearth-lead. In this method of smelting we must use only cupriferous pyrites which easily melt in the fire, in truth the cakes melted out from this, if they no longer absorb much gold or silver, are replenished again from crude pyrites alone. If from this poor ore, with melted pyrites alone, material for cakes cannot be made, there are added other fluxes which have not previously been melted. These fluxes are, namely, lead ore, stones easily fused by fire of the second order and sand made from them, limestone, _tophus_, white schist, and iron stone[21].

Although this method of smelting ores is rough and might not seem to be of great use, yet it is clever and useful; for a great weight of ores, in which the gold, silver, or copper are in small quant.i.ties, may be reduced into a few cakes containing all the metal. If on being first melted they are too crude to be suitable for the second melting, in which the lead absorbs the precious metals that are in the cakes, or in which the copper is melted out of them, yet they can be made suitable if they are repeatedly roasted, sometimes as often as seven or eight times, as I have explained in the last book. Smelters of this kind are so clever and expert, that in smelting they take out all the gold and silver which the a.s.sayer in a.s.saying the ores has stated to be contained in them, because if during the first operation, when he makes the cakes, there is a _drachma_ of gold or half an _uncia_ of silver lost from the ores, the smelter obtains it from the slags by the second smelting. This method of smelting ores is old and very common to most of those who use other methods.

[Ill.u.s.tration 393 (Lead smelting Furnaces): A--Furnace of the Carni.

B--Low wall. C--Wood. D--Ore dripping lead. E--Large crucible.

F--Moulds. G--Ladle. H--Slabs of lead. I--Rectangular hole at the back of the furnace. K--Saxon furnace. L--Opening in the back of the furnace.

M--Wood. N--Upper crucible. O--Dipping-pot. P--Westphalian method of melting. Q--Heaps of charcoal. R--Straw. S--Wide slabs. T--Crucibles.

V--Polish hearth.]

Although lead ores are usually smelted in the third furnace--whose tap-hole is always open,--yet not a few people melt them in special furnaces by a method which I will briefly explain. The _Carni_[22] first burn such lead ores, and afterward break and crush them with large round mallets. Between the two low walls of a hearth, which is inside a furnace made of and vaulted with a rock that resists injury by the fire and does not burn into chalk, they place green wood with a layer of dry wood on the top of it; then they throw the ore on to this, and when the wood is kindled the lead drips down and runs on to the underlying sloping hearth[23]. This hearth is made of pulverised charcoal and earth, as is also a large crucible, one-half of which lies under the furnace and the other half outside it, into which runs the lead. The smelter, having first skimmed off the slags and other things with a hoe, pours the lead with a ladle into moulds, taking out the cakes after they have cooled. At the back of the furnace is a rectangular hole, so that the fire may be allowed more draught, and so that the smelter can crawl through it into the furnace if necessity demands.

The Saxons who inhabit Gittelde, when smelting lead ore in a furnace not unlike a baking oven, put the wood in through a hole at the back of the furnace, and when it begins to burn vigorously the lead trickles out of the ore into a forehearth. When this is full, the smelting being accomplished, the tap-hole is opened with a bar, and in this way the lead, together with the slags, runs into the dipping-pots below.

Afterward the cakes of lead, when they are cold, are taken from the moulds.

In Westphalia they heap up ten wagon-loads of charcoal on some hillside which adjoins a level place, and the top of the heap being made flat, straw is thrown upon it to the thickness of three or four digits. On the top of this is laid as much pure lead ore as the heap can bear; then the charcoal is kindled, and when the wind blows, it fans the fire so that the ore is smelted. In this wise the lead, trickling down from the heap, flows on to the level and forms broad thin slabs. A few hundred pounds of lead ore are kept at hand, which, if things go well, are scattered over the heap. These broad slabs are impure and are laid upon dry wood which in turn is placed on green wood laid over a large crucible, and the former having been kindled, the lead is re-melted.

The Poles use a hearth of bricks four feet high, sloping on both sides and plastered with lute. On the upper level part of the hearth large pieces of wood are piled, and on these is placed small wood with lute put in between; over the top are laid wood shavings, and upon these again pure lead ore covered with large pieces of wood. When these are kindled, the ore melts and runs down on to the lower layer of wood; and when this is consumed by the fire, the metal is collected. If necessity demand, it is melted over and over again in the same manner, but it is finally melted by means of wood laid over the large crucible, the slabs of lead being placed upon it.

The concentrates from washing are smelted together with slags (fluxes?) in a third furnace, of which the tap-hole is always open.

[Ill.u.s.tration 395 (Blast Furnaces): A--Furnaces. B--Vaulted roof.

C--Columns. D--Dust-chamber. E--Opening. F--Chimney. G--Window. H--Door.

I--Chute.]

It is worth while to build vaulted dust-chambers over the furnaces, especially over those in which the precious ores are to be smelted, in order that the thicker part of the fumes, in which metals are not wanting, may be caught and saved. In this way two or more furnaces are combined under the same vaulted ceiling, which is supported by the wall, against which the furnaces are built, and by four columns. Under this the smelters of the ore perform their work. There are two openings through which the fumes rise from the furnaces into the wide vaulted chamber, and the wider this is the more fumes it collects; in the middle of this chamber over the arch is an opening three palms high and two wide. This catches the fumes of both furnaces, which have risen up from both sides of the vaulted chamber to its arch, and have fallen again because they could not force their way out; and they thus pa.s.s out through the opening mentioned, into the chimney which the Greeks call [Greek: kapnodoche], the name being taken from the object. The chimney has thin iron plates fastened into the walls, to which the thinner metallic substances adhere when ascending with the fumes. The thicker metallic substances, or _cadmia_,[25] adhere to the vaulted chamber, and often harden into stalact.i.tes. On one side of the chamber is a window in which are set panes of gla.s.s, so that the light may be transmitted, but the fumes kept in; on the other side is a door, which is kept entirely closed while the ores are being smelted in the furnaces, so that none of the fumes may escape. It is opened in order that the workman, pa.s.sing through it, may be enabled to enter the chamber and remove the soot and _pompholyx_[26] and chip off the _cadmia_; this sweeping is done twice a year. The soot mixed with _pompholyx_ and the _cadmia_, being chipped off, is thrown down through a long chute made of four boards joined in the shape of a rectangle, that they should not fly away. They fall on to the floor, and are sprinkled with salt water, and are again smelted with ore and litharge, and become an emolument to the proprietors. Such chambers, which catch the metallic substances that rise with the fumes, are profitable for all metalliferous ores; but especially for the minute metallic particles collected by washing crushed ores and rock, because these usually fly out with the fire of the furnaces.

I have explained the four general methods of smelting ores; now I will state how the ores of each metal are smelted, or how the metal is obtained from the ore. I will begin with gold. Its sand, the concentrates from washing, or the gold dust collected in any other manner, should very often not be smelted, but should be mixed with quicksilver and washed with tepid water, so that all the impurities may be eliminated. This method I explained in Book VII. Or they are placed in the _aqua_ which separates gold from silver, for this also separates its impurities. In this method we see the gold sink in the gla.s.s ampulla, and after all the _aqua_ has been drained from the particles, it frequently remains as a gold-coloured residue at the bottom; this powder, when it has been moistened with oil made from argol[27], is then dried and placed in a crucible, where it is melted with borax or with saltpetre and salt; or the same very fine dust is thrown into molten silver, which absorbs it, and from this it is again parted by _aqua valens_[28].

It is necessary to smelt gold ore either outside the blast furnace in a crucible, or inside the blast furnace; in the former case a small charge of ore is used, in the latter a large charge of it. _Rudis_ gold, of whatever colour it is, is crushed with a _libra_ each of sulphur and salt, a third of a _libra_ of copper, and a quarter of a _libra_ of argol; they should be melted in a crucible on a slow fire for three hours, then the alloy is put into molten silver that it may melt more rapidly. Or a _libra_ of the same crude gold, crushed up, is mixed together with half a _libra_ of _stibium_ likewise crushed, and put into a crucible with half an _uncia_ of copper filings, and heated until they melt, then a sixth part of granulated lead is thrown into the same crucible. As soon as the mixture emits an odour, iron-filings are added to it, or if these are not at hand, iron hammer-scales, for both of these break the strength of the _stibium_. When the fire consumes it, not alone with it is some strength of the _stibium_ consumed, but some particles of gold and also of silver, if it be mixed with the gold[29].

When the b.u.t.ton has been taken out of the crucible and cooled, it is melted in a cupel, first until the antimony is exhaled, and thereafter until the lead is separated from it.

Crushed pyrites which contains gold is smelted in the same way; it and the _stibium_ should be of equal weight and in truth the gold may be made from them in a number of different ways[30]. One part of crushed material is mixed with six parts of copper, one part of sulphur, half a part of salt, and they are all placed in a pot and over them is poured wine distilled by heating liquid argol in an ampulla. The pot is covered and smeared over with lute and is put in a hot place, so that the mixture moistened with wine may dry for the s.p.a.ce of six days, then it is heated for three hours over a gentle fire that it may combine more rapidly with the lead. Finally it is put into a cupel and the gold is separated from the lead[31].