Beyond Attis himself, Cybele too offered a challenge to Christian divine nomenclature. Cybele was regarded as a virgin goddess and as such could be seen as a rival to the Virgin Mary... Cybele as the mother of the Gods, mater Deum, here again presented a starkly pagan parallel to the Christian Mother of God.

There was rivalry too in ritual. The climax of the celebration of Attis' resurrection, the Hilaria, fell on the 25th of March, the date that the early church had settled on as the day of Christ's death....[1868]

The festival associated with Cybele and Attis, called the "Megalensia," was celebrated specifically in the spring, with a passion play commemorating Attis's death and resurrection.[1869] Dr. Fear thus asserts this mourning period of the god Attis to have comprised three days. In reality, this pre-Christian cult remained popular well into the common era, and its similarities to Christianity were not considered "superficial" by the Church fathers such as Augustine who wrote about them. The parallels between the Attis myth and the gospel story are in fact startling and highly noteworthy, and in reality represent an archetypal myth that was evidently changed to revolve around a Jewish messiah, with numerous details added for a wide variety of purposes. Fear's analysis includes the debate as to when this prototypical springtime death-and-resurrection motif was associated with the pre-Christian god Attis, with various scholars averring its components to have been added in response to Christianity.

Contrary to the current fad of dismissing all correspondences between Christianity and Paganism, the fact that Attis was at some point a "dying and rising god" is concluded by Mettinger who relates: "Since the time of Damascius (6th cent. AD/CE), Attis seems to have been believed to die and return."[1870] By that point, we possess clear discussion in writing of Attis having been resurrected, but when exactly were these rites first celebrated and where? Again, Attis worship is centuries older than Jesus worship and was popular in some parts of the Roman Empire before and well into the "Christian era."

In addition, it is useful here to reiterate that simply because something occurred after the year 1 AD/CE does not mean that it was influenced by Christianity, as it may have happened where Christianity had never been heard of. In actuality, not much about Christianity emerges until the second century, and there remain to this day places where Christianity is unknown; hence, these locations can still be considered pre-Christian.

It is probable that the Attis rites were celebrated long before Christianity was recognized to any meaningful extent. Certainly, since they are mysteries, they could have been celebrated but not recorded previously, especially in pre-Christian times, when the capital punishment for revealing such mysteries was actually carried out. We have seen cautious reticence expressed on the part of Herodotus, for example, who declined to reveal the mysteries of Osiris he had witnessed. Herodotus's concerns would not be misplaced, as evidenced by the "witchhunt" that ensued within his lifetime concerning the Athenian politician Alcibiades (c. 450404 BCE), who was accused of "profaning the Mysteries" and was sentenced to death for his alleged transgressions.[1871] Under such circumstances, it is understandable that the mysteries were never recorded overtly such that we now have them readily at our disposal.

Moreover, frequently lacking in critical analyses from extant ancient texts is any acknowledgement of the massive destruction of culture waged by Christians for many centuries, undoubtedly designed in significant part to obliterate any record of correspondences between Paganism and Christianity. In the case of Attis, for example, we possess a significant account in Diodorus (3.58.7) of his death and mourning, including the evidently annual ritual creation of his image by priests.[1872] Hence, these significant aspects of the Attis myth are clearly pre-Christian. But what about the resurrection itself? In consideration of all the forgery and fraud committed by religious fanatics over the centuries, we would not be remiss in suggesting that it would be a simple matter of merely editing Diodorus, for one, to make it appear as if the resurrection motif were never in his works. In the final analysis, there currently exists only a relative handful of writings from the pertinent eras, out of a mass of literature and other artifacts-who can conclude with 100% certainty that amidst all of these destroyed writings appeared no Pagan parallels to Christianity? Indeed, as we have seen from the Egyptian data alone, such a conclusion is entirely untenable. In this regard, we need not rely on the Attis myth to demonstrate that Christianity is not original or unique in most of its salient concepts.

In reality, the theme of life renewal was based largely on natural phenomena that were unquestionably observed long before the Christian era, with its similar drama surrounding a Jewish godman. It is therefore reasonable to ask whether or not these other gods already symbolized these motifs long prior to the era in which they are clearly recorded as such. Also, let us not forget that a number of these highly significant motifs constituted mysteries that were not readily and easily recorded anywhere, but that may have been known more or less widely through oral tradition, especially among the elite who create religions. That festivals celebrating the end of winter's death and the resurrection of life in spring long predate Christianity in numerous parts of the world is a fact, as we know from the Persephone story, for one, and there is little reason to suppose that such "Easter" commemorations were not prevalent in other places also centuries prior to the common era. Moreover, we possess testimony from early Christian fathers such as Justin Martyr that appears to prove the existence of these various motifs preceding Christ's purported advent.

Concerning the pre-Christian resurrection theme, Dr. Porter remarks: During the Graeco-Roman period, there were numerous cults that had their basis in earlier thought and relied to varying degrees on some form of a resurrection story. Three of them can be mentioned here, although it is not clear that these are different myths. They may be simply the same myth many times retold....[1873]

In his discussion of this retelling of myths, Porter recounts the comments by Diodorus that the Egyptian gods are called by many names, such as various Greek counterparts. He then addresses the Orphic myths, which include that of Dionysus, "first developed around the sixth century BC in the east."[1874] Porter subsequently says: The cycle of nature, reflected in the myth of Dionysius's [sic] death and rebirth, tied to the harvest, emphasized the promise of new life to those who followed the cult....

A second cult worth recounting is that of Isis. This cult was arguably the most important of the mystery religions of the Roman Empire. The figure of Isis was identified with Demeter...but developed her own cult, well-reflected in evidence from Egypt during the Roman period, especially in terms of health and overcoming of disease.[1875]

Next Porter relates the story of Horus's resurrection from death as recounted by Diodorus (1.25.6), adding: The word used for raised from the dead is [anastesai], widely used in the New Testament for "resurrection" as well. This same power, evidenced also in Isis's husband/brother Osiris, was then in some sense transferred to all later initiates, who went through a process of initiation into the cult of Isis.[1876]

Again, in Horus's myth emerges a resurrection or anastasis, using the precise term found in the later New Testament, in the century before Christ's purported revivification. This fact is highly significant in that it demonstrates yet another solid link between the Egyptian and Christian religions.

Horus and Osiris at the Vernal Equinox.

As concerns "Easter" in Egypt, we have already discussed the festival known as "Shamo," which dates to at least 4,500 years ago and which is celebrated to this day. Regarding Easter and Horus, Massey states: ...the place of rebirth for Horus the eternal Son was celebrated in the vernal equinox... The double birth of Horus at the two times, or the birth of the babe in the winter solstice and the rebirth as the adult in the Easter equinox is acknowledged in the Egyptian Book of the Divine Birth.... it was commanded in the calendar of Esne that the precepts of the Book on the Second Divine Birth of the child Kahi "were to be performed on the first of the month Epiphi" (cited by Lockyer, Dawn of Astronomy, pp. 284-6). The child Kahi is a pseudonym for the child-Horus.... Now the first and second "divine births" (or the birth and rebirth) of Horus were celebrated at the festivals of the winter solstice and the Easter equinox, and these are the two times of the two Horuses identified by Plutarch, the first as manifester for Isis, the Virgin Mother, the second as Horus, the Son of God the Father, when he tells us that "Harpocrates (Har the Khart, or child) is born about the winter solstice, immature and infant-like in the plants that flower and spring up early, for which reason they offer to him the first-fruits of growing lentils; and they celebrate her (Isis) being brought to bed after the vernal equinox" (of Is. and Os., ch. 65)... Two different birthdays were likewise assigned to the Greek Apollo. One of these was commemorated by the Delians at the time of the winter solstices; the other by the Delphians in the vernal equinox.[1877]

In the Greek myth, Apollo was born on the island of Delos and was said to journey to the mainland village of Delphi, where he had a temple and a famed oracle. The ancient writer Macrobius (1.18.7-10) names Apollo as a sun god-albeit as the "summer sun"-and then discusses the sun god being born at the winter solstice, which is logical for a solar hero.[1878] As was the case with Dionysus, likewise the sun born at the winter solstice, that time of the year was celebrated in the name of Apollo with "orgies."[1879] The festival of Apollo called the Delphinia was held "at the vernal equinox, during the month of Monouchion," or March.[1880] Apollo and his sister Artemis are called the "vernal deities,"[1881] while Apollo is likewise the "vernal Sun."[1882] It is easy to understand why Apollo was said to have been born at both the winter solstice and the vernal equinox. Since Horus was repeatedly identified with Apollo in ancient times, one can see why the same might be asserted about the Egyptian god as well.

Concerning the solar nature of Osiris and the birth of Horus at the vernal equinox, Bunsen remarks: The myth of Osiris typifies the solar year-the power of Osiris is the sun in the lower hemisphere, the winter solstices. The birth of Horus typifies the vernal equinox-the victory of Horus, the summer equinox-the inundation of the Nile. Typhon is the autumnal equinox.[1883]

Indeed, the double birth of Horus is described without explanation by Plutarch (65, 377C), who, in addition to his discussion of Harpocrates being "brought forth" by Isis at the winter solstice next comments that "the days of his birth they celebrate after the spring equinox."[1884]

As previously noted, an inscription found at both Edfu and Esne discusses the festival of the "suspension of the sky by Ptah," as well as that of the entrance of Osiris into the moon, which festivities are "connected with the celebration of the Winter Solstice...."[1885] These festivals are mentioned by Lockyer along with the book "on the Divine Birth" as part of a discussion of the "reconstruction of the calendar."[1886] The royal astronomer next discusses the date of "1 Epiphi" in the Esne calendar, the entry for which he quotes as: "1 Epiphi. To perform the precepts of the book on the second divine birth of the child Kahi."[1887] Lockyer subsequently remarks that the 26th of the Egyptian month of Payni, which is the "New Year's Day," is "associated with "the second divine birth" and "may have some dim reference to the feast."[1888] Lockyer finally demurs from discussing the subject further, much to our loss about this important issue. The 26th of Payni in the Alexandrian calendar is equivalent to June 20th,[1889] which would indeed represent the summer-solstice, new-year observance with the rising of Sirius and the pending birth of Osiris.

In the Alexandrian calendar, the first of Epiphi or Epeiph is equivalent to June 25th,[1890] reflecting the end of the summer solstice and the birth of Osiris. In the roving or "vague" Egyptian calendar the 1st of Epiphi fell on the vernal equinox in the years 1142-1139 BCE, which date during those years would translate as April 1 in the Julian calendar.[1891] It is possible that at that time 1 Epiphi was designated the "second divine birth of the child Kahi." In this regard, the Egyptian word kahi means "soil," "earth," "land" and "region," and, while kahi is typically represented as a goddess, it was also an epithet of Horus, as in "Horus of the Two Lands" in the Book of the Dead, or "Horus of the land,"[1892] as at the temple of Edfu, where Horus is likewise deemed Hor-hat-kah: "Horus of the land of Hat."[1893]

In addition to connecting it with the winter solstice, Plutarch (43, 368C) also places Osiris's "Coming to the Moon" as a festival marking the vernal equinox: Moreover, at the time of the new moon in the month of Phamenoth they celebrate a festival to which they give the name of "Osiris's coming to the Moon," and this marks the beginning of the spring. Thus they make the power of Osiris to be fixed in the Moon, and say that Isis, since she is generation, is associated with him. For this reason they also call the Moon the mother of the world, and they think that she has a nature both male and female, as she is receptive and made pregnant by the Sun, but she herself in turn emits and disseminates into the air generative principles.[1894]

Concerning Osiris and his "discovery" or rebirth at the winter solstice, as well as his entrance into the moon during the vernal equinox, the Encyclopedia Britannica states: Among the most characteristic celebrations of the Egyptians were those which took place at the [aphanismos] or disappearance of Osiris in October or November, at the search for his remains, and their discovery about the winter solstice, and at the date of his supposed entrance into the moon at the beginning of spring.[1895]

Regarding Osiris's "entrance into the moon," by the time of the Decree of Canopus (238 BCE), the wandering year had placed the lunar event on the 29th of Koiak, which in the Alexandrian calendar was equivalent to December 26th.[1896] Thus, like Horus, we possess in the myth of Osiris another kind of "dual birth" with his rediscovery or "rebirth" at the winter solstice and his renewal or "rebirth" as the light in the moon at the vernal equinox. If Osiris's "real" birth at the summer solstice is factored in, we possess three annual, astrotheological times of renewal for the god, as well as his purported birth on January 6th, making him equivalent to "Aion."[1897]

The Christian celebration of "Easter," the supposed time of Christ's death and resurrection, also follows a roving date traditionally placed on the first full moon following the vernal equinox, which has occurred occasionally during the equinoctial three-day period, as it did in 2008.[1898] This wandering date indicates that Christ's passion and resurrection are not "historical," with their placement at the full moon after or at the vernal equinox, demonstrating their astrotheological nature instead. Indeed, if, as according to certain Gnostics, Jesus's incarnation and crucifixion were "fictitious," then so too would be his resurrection, obviously taking place in the "Pleroma," quite similar to that of Osiris.

The "Christos" is not only the sun triumphing over the darkness as the day becomes longer than the night, but it is also the sun's light in the moon, as the moon waxes and wanes monthly. Hence, the full moon likewise represents the sun's "resurrection," and the theme within Christianity also appears to have been influenced by Osiris's entrance into the moon at the vernal equinox as well. That the date of Christ's death and resurrection is based on astrotheology is thoroughly demonstrated in the subject's discussion by ancient Church fathers, including the writers of the Alexandria or Paschal Chronicle, also called the "Easter Chronicle." In that text, the authors spend significant time calculating the proper dates for Easter, based on astrotheological considerations. In any event, the deity reborn or raised up at the vernal equinox or springtime is a recurring theme not representing a "historical" personage but, rather, a natural phenomenon, i.e., Spring.

The "Ascension into Heaven"

In the Christian tale, Jesus's miraculous ascension into heaven is appended as an afterthought in the Gospel of Luke and as a footnote in Mark, not appearing at all in Matthew or John-who were nevertheless supposed to have been eyewitnesses to the astounding event![1899] After studying the precedents for the ascension in the myths of other cultures, it becomes obvious that the motif was added to the Christ myth in order to compete with these others. As one of these mythical precedents, the god's ascension to heaven is repeatedly referred to in the very ancient Egyptian texts as well. In the Journal of Near Eastern Studies, in an article entitled, "The Ascension-Myth in the Pyramid Texts," Berkeley professor of History Dr. Whitney M. Davis states that the "myth of the ascension of the King" represents "one of the principal myths of the ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts."[1900] The ascension of both Osiris and Horus may be found at PT 303:464a-467a/W 208, for example: "O you western gods, eastern gods, southern gods, and northern gods! These four pure reed-floats which you set down for Osiris when he ascended to the sky, so that he might ferry over to the firmament with his son Horus beside him so that he might bring him up and cause him to appear as a great god in the firmament-set them down for me!"

"Are you Horus, son of Osiris? Are you the god, the eldest one, the son of Hathor? Are you the seed of Geb?"

"Osiris has commanded me to appear as the counterpart of Horus...[1901]

The word Faulkner translates here as "firmament"-kbhw or qbhw-represents the hieroglyph for "cool water," "libation" or "celestial lake." Mercer calls the act in question an "ascension to heaven," while Allen prefers the rendering of "going forth to the sky." In addition, Faulkner labels 29 utterances in the Pyramid Texts as "An 'ascension' text,"[1902] demonstrating the prominence of this theme.

Osiris and Horus's ascension in PT 303 is summarized by Griffiths thus: He (Osiris) voyages to heaven with his son Horus at his side, that he may nurture him and cause him to appear in glory as a great god in heaven.[1903]

As we can see, the deceased is to "appear" or "dawn" as a "counterpart of Horus," or a "second Horus," after Horus ascends to the sky in the company of his father, Osiris.

T. George Allen also summarizes a pyramid text (PT 537:1301a-b/P 281) in which the deceased, as Horus, ascends: King ascends as...Horus of Dewat, presider over the Imperishable Stars, and sits upon his marvelous throne at the head of his celestial lake...[1904]

As another example, PT 670/N 348, which Mercer calls, "The Death, Resurrection, and Spiritualization of the King," and which James Allen deems, "Commending the Spirit to Isis and Nephthys," describes the mourning, resurrection and ascension of the deceased/Osiris.[1905] In this spell, Horus calls forth Osiris after his "fourth day," as in the parallel story of Jesus and Lazarus. The last line depicts the Osiris as "coming from" or ascending up from Geb/Seb, the earth.

In PT 684:2051a-b/N 514, which Mercer titles, "THE DECEASED KING ASCENDS TO HEAVEN," the departed rises up with Osiris: To say: N. ascended at thy ascension, Osiris; N. has spoken (with) his ka in heaven.[1906]

Faulkner renders this "ascension text" as: "This King ascended when you ascended, O Osiris; his word and his double are bound for the sky..."[1907] Allen calls this spell simply, "Meeting the Gods,"[1908] translating it as: "Pepi Neferkare ["N" or the deceased] has emerged in your emergence, Osiris; Pepi Neferkare has claimed his ka for the sky."[1909] Allen's translation reflects his preference for the rendition of the pertinent hieroglyph as "sky," rather than "heaven," in order to avoid "the use of words that may connote concepts not present in Egyptian."[1910] As concerns the rendering of "sky" as "heaven," however, it should be noted that in his analysis of the abundant sun hymns from the New Kingdom, Assman employs the terms "heaven" and "heavens" on numerous occasions.[1911]

In any event, unless we know what we are looking at in Allen's rendering, we might have a difficult time seeing that the basic concept is the "ascension into heaven," as the deceased becomes "spiritualized" or "akhified." That the deceased is rising into the sky becomes clear from the next utterance, per Allen: "...the (grand)mother of Pepi Neferkare, Tefnut, will take Pepi Neferkare to the sky, to the sky on the smoke of incense."[1912] Again, the deceased-in this case, Pepi II-is "the Osiris," rising into the sky. Tefnut, we have seen, is the daughter created by Atmu/Atum from himself, and her status as Pepi's "grandmother" once again displays the divinity of the king and his identification as a god, in this case Osiris, grandson of Tefnut. From this lofty position, it is said later in this spell, "Pepi Neferkare will not fall to the ground from the sky."[1913] In order to attain to the sky, the deceased must use the "Winding Canal," which is the 12 ecliptic or path the sun traverses during the year.[1914] In addition, the Osiris will put himself on the path of "Horus of Shezmet," the sun at dawn, the route upon which Horus "leads the gods to the perfect paths of the sky..."[1915] The ascension into the sky is also repeatedly referred to in the Coffin Texts,[1916] including in a passage (CT Sp. 74) discussing Horus of the Netherworld rising up and ascending into the "Celestial waters."[1917]

Also in the Pyramid Texts, Osiris is depicted as ascending into heaven via the ladder of Horus and Set,[1918] which could likewise be deemed the "stairway to paradise." As Dr. W.M. Davis says, "The King may use a ladder...to reach the Hereafter," as at PT 568:1431c/P 507, which states that "a ladder is set up for him that he may ascend on it..."[1919] CT Sp. 550 concerns this same "ladder to heaven," used by the Osiris to reach the sky.[1920] Meanwhile, in CT Sp. 76 the "air god" Shu, who supports the heavens while standing on the earth, also possesses a ladder.[1921] The ascension by ladder of the god into the sky likewise occurs at PT 688/N 522: "Pepi Neferkare ["The Osiris"] shall go thereby to his mother Nut and Pepi Neferkare shall go ascend on her in her identity of the ladder."[1922] Once more, the deceased is identified with Osiris, son of Nut, the sky, to whom the son/sun ascends. Interestingly, while Set supplants Osiris, the biblical character who also possesses a ladder to heaven is named "Jacob," which likewise means "supplanter." (Gen 28:10-12) In discussing the ascension of Osiris by ladder, Griffiths remarks, "One recalls the celestial ladder in Jacob's dream at Bethel."[1923] In light of the obvious cultural exchange between Egypt and the Levant, it is logical to suggest that, rather than representing a "true story" of a "historical Jacob," the biblical tale is likewise a myth, emanating out of Egypt and not the other way around.[1924]

As is evident, however it is translated, Osiris and Horus are described as ascending into the sky, which, again, is sensible for solar deities, describing the sun's daily and annual transits. As the ascension is "generally associated with the daylight rather than with the nighttime,"[1925] it would therefore be out of the netherworld, precisely as was said of Jesus's anastasis out of the underworld. Another instance of this rebirth/resurrection is termed the "Emergence from the Duat," which is the title of a Pyramid Text spell (W 158).[1926] As we can see, like the resurrection, the "ascension to heaven," "going forth to the sky" or "voyage to heaven" is a common occurrence with Egyptian gods, as is appropriate for the sun.

Spiritual or Bodily Resurrection?

In an attempt to establish any difference, however slight, between the Egyptian and Christian religions, the argument has been put forth that, while it may be true that Osiris had something to do with resurrection, it was a completely different concept than the physical or bodily resurrection of Jesus and the promise the latter held for all mankind. For example, Dr. Robert M. Grant, a professor of New Testament at the University of Chicago, avers, "Other gods died and rose; only Jesus rose in the flesh."[1927] This notion is a step up from the denial that there was any kind of resurrection within pre-Christian religion, which, astonishingly, certain individuals have tried to argue along the way in order to prove Christianity a "unique divine revelation," separate and apart from, as well as superior to, "diabolical Paganism." Contrary to such a fallacy, the idea of resurrection was not only abundant but an almost constant focus of Egyptian religion, for one, with the mortuary texts designed specifically for this transition, as we have already seen many times.

The dilemma of the Christian perspective is evident in such remarks as the following by apologists who endeavor to differentiate between the resurrections of Osiris and Jesus, first asserting that "there is no account that claims Osiris rose from the dead." In the next paragraph, however, the authors relate the story of Osiris being killed, with Isis reassembling his body, after which she "brought him back to life!"[1928] Surely this death and revivification constitutes a resurrection in which the god rises from the dead. The next distinction is attempted by dismissing Osiris's resurrection as a "zombification." From such comments, however, it would appear that said apologists have not read a single scripture from the enormous body of writings and are therefore not expert on the Egyptian religion. On the contrary, a professional Egyptologist who was one of the most respected authorities of his day, sincere Christian Budge was so struck by the profound similarities that he believed Christ was the fulfillment of the Egyptian religion. Other Egyptologists, including Morenz, Hornung and Mojsov, have recognized and commented upon some of the more germane correspondences between the Egyptian and Christian religions as well, as we have seen throughout this present work.

Another apologist book asserts: Part of the uniqueness of Christianity is its insistence on the bodily resurrection of Jesus Christ and on the future bodily resurrection of believers in Christ. The reuniting of the soul with the body-a new, permanent body-is unheard of in the ancient mystery religions.[1929]

In reality, this "uniqueness" is revealed to be an illusion. In the first place, do Christians really believe that their old rotting bodies will be restored for them? The author clarifies it will be a new body that believers inherit by their mere faith in Christ. In that regard, this belief is virtually identical to that of the Egyptians, although lacking in the finer spiritual nuances of the Egyptian religion. Moreover, if the Osirian cultus is to be considered a "mystery religion," as demonstrated here repeatedly to be, then the last contention is certainly false.

The Word "Resurrection"

In an effort to create any possible distinction between the Egyptian and Christian religions, the Egyptian resurrection is denied to the point where even the word "resurrection" is avoided in designating it, as if the term belongs solely to the much later Christian religion and should not be used when describing the revivification of other gods, heroes and legends in the ancient world. This argument is spurious and is rejected here because, firstly, the concept of a resurrection to life, after a period of death, is very much prevalent in ancient religion long prior to the common era. Secondly, the term translated as "resurrection" in the New Testament- or anastasis (Strong's G386), which means "standing up" or "rising up," the same translated phrase as used in the Egyptian texts to describe the deceased's resurrection-can be found dozens of times in the Greek Old Testament, such as at Lamentations 3:63 and elsewhere. Anastasis and other derivatives also appear in the works of the pre-Christian Greek writers Aeschylus (c. 525-456 BCE), Sophocles (c. 496 BCE-406 BCE), Euripides (c. 480-406 BCE), Thucydides (c. 460-c. 395 BCE) and Demosthenes (384322 BCE), with a variety of meanings, and in no way represent the sole possession of the Christian effort.[1930] Indeed, the same word anastasis is used in the first century before the common era by Diodorus Siculus to describe the resurrection of Horus after he is stung by a scorpion and dies. It is quite obvious that anastasis is not the exclusive territory of the Christian doctrine-indeed, Christianity evidently borrowed the phrase with the precise same meaning in order to apply it to their own created godman, in a competitive move.

While the apologists and theologians thus try to create such differences, their views are not in accordance with experts on the Egyptian religion, e.g., various Egyptologists who consistently use the word "resurrection" when referring to the transition proposed in both the myth of Osiris and the ongoing ritual of the mortuary literature. In her book on Osiris, for instance, Mojsov uses the term "resurrection" or variant thereof some 24 times, while Frankfort employs the term "resurrection," etc., some 50 times, including an entire section entitled "Resurrection," in his seminal work Kingship and the Gods. Therefore, the word "resurrection" has been used here freely in reference to a return to life or revivification, as appropriate.

The Dying and Rising Debate.

The modern dismissal of the Egyptian resurrection revolves largely around the debate of the past several decades concerning the mythical genre entitled "dying and rising gods," scholarship originally developed significantly by Frazer in his voluminous The Golden Bough series. The dying-and-rising category appreciably watered down the uniqueness of the entire Christian premise and led to much speculation that Christ himself was one of the same mythical type. Hence, the concept came under intense scrutiny, particularly by Christian apologists attempting to create a distinction between these pre-Christian gods and Jesus. After some back and forth, the flawed blanket dismissal of the Pagan dying-and-rising-god motif[1931] was effectively dismantled in the scholarly and well-documented monograph The Riddle of the Resurrection by Mettinger, who not only noted the Christian bias in the debate but also concluded: From the 1930s through the rest of the century, a consensus has developed to the effect that the "dying and rising gods" died but did not return or rise to live again. The present work-which is the first monograph on the whole issue subsequent to the studies by Frazer and Baudissin-is a detailed critique of that position. It is based on a fresh perusal of all the relevant source material from the ancient Near East, Egypt, and the Graeco-Roman world and profits from new finds of great importance.... The author concludes that Dumuzi, Baal, and Melqart were dying and rising gods already in pre-Christian times and that Adonis and Esmun may well have been so too. Osiris dies and rises but remains all the time in the Netherworld. The deities that die and rise do not represent one specific type of god (e.g. the Baal-Hadad type) but are deities of widely divergent origin and character....[1932]

In the end, Mettinger remarks: Finally, there is the resurrection of Jesus in the New Testament. Dying and rising gods were known in Palestine in New Testament times.[1933]

This last statement cannot be overemphasized: Dying and rising gods were known in Palestine in New Testament times.

As opposed to those who contend that "Osiris is in no sense a resurrected god," Mettinger says of Osiris, "He died and rose." However, this biblical scholar follows with the obligatory disclaimer that the god "rose to continued life in the Netherworld."[1934] The distinction is therefore made that the resurrected Osiris supposedly stays in the netherworld or underworld and does not return to this world. In this regard, Goelet states: Once revitalized, he usually appears as Wennefer, an epithet which perhaps means "he who is always perfect." When Osiris comes back to life, however, he never returns to the land of the living, but remains in the Underworld, the Duat, where he rules as King of Eternity and supreme judge of the dead. His resurrection was limited to the next world and so he passed on the rights of kingship to his son and avenger, Horus....[1935]

Often in an effort to differentiate him from Jesus, a number of Egyptologists and other scholars thus emphasize that Osiris's resurrection was in the netherworld, not the material world. Nonetheless, regardless of where he ends up and when he arrives there, Osiris was clearly resurrected to life after having been killed, in the same sense as was believed of Christ millennia later.

Indeed, Osiris's netherworldly status is not unlike that of the Gnostic Christ, which is to be expected, since so much of Gnostic Christianity is demonstrably based on the Egyptian religion. As the Encyclopedia Britannica notes, according to the "Gnostics of Irenaeus," the Christos essentially "dies and resurrects" as he "sinks down into matter but rises again."[1936] The Gnostic resurrection was therefore also "spiritual," taking place outside of the material world.

Moreover, in the standardized myth it is implicit that Osiris returns to life in this world, as Isis puts his body back together and then hovers above it to impregnate herself. If Osiris wasn't resurrected first in the "real world," why were his body parts needed to raise him? And why is he depicted as "resuscitated" so that he can impregnate Isis as a bird hovering over his body? Surely he is not dead, and Isis is not in the netherworld, in this instance of fecundation.

In addition, after discussing various Pyramid Texts in which appears the phrase "in the arms of the divine offspring," Dr. Garnot remarks, "It is very probable that the resurrection of Osiris was considered to take place 'in the arms' of Horus, who held the body of the god in his embrace."[1937] If Horus is in this world, and he is holding his father in his arms when the latter revives, then Osiris must have been said to resurrect into the material world as well.

In this case, then, the difference between Osiris's resurrection into this world and that of Jesus would be the amount of time each god spends on Earth before ascending to heaven or returning to the netherworld. As biblical scholar and mythicist Dr. Robert M. Price says in regard to the apology denying Osiris's resurrection because the god "reigned henceforth in the realm of the dead": But then we might as well deny that Jesus is depicted as dying and rising since he reigns henceforth at the right hand of God in Paradise as judge of the dead, like Osiris.[1938]

Furthermore, Plutarch (19, 358B) specifically states that after Isis puts Osiris's body parts back together, "Osiris came to Horus from the other world and exercised and trained him for the battle."[1939] Osiris has a detailed discussion with Horus, implying that he spent a significant amount of time in this world, unless this conversation takes place on a different plane, with Osiris appearing either as a vision or only audibly. Plutarch's original Greek reads, " ."[1940] The pertinent words here are " ," which means "out of Hades," and , from the verb , meaning "be present or at hand; arrive at, happen; assist, help."[1941] While or "ex" can also mean "from," judging by the terms Plutarch uses, it appears that he believed this resurrection to be a true physical one along the lines of the return of Persephone or Orpheus from Hades, as in the Greek mythology with which this Greek scholar was surely familiar. Indeed, the same phrase " " is used by Euripides in his play Alcestis (line 359), in reference to the character Ademetus "snatching back" his deceased wife, Alcestis, from Hades.[1942] In this story predating the common era by almost four and a half centuries, the Greek son of God Heracles/Hercules succeeds in rescuing Alcestis, who is thus resurrected out of the underworld, on the third day, no less![1943] In any event, even if Horus's instruction by the resurrected Osiris were "merely" a vision, it would be akin to St. Paul's vision of Christ, the latter likewise empowering the former to do battle against his enemies. Of course, the whole drama takes place on a different plane in any event, representing mythology-as, we aver, does the gospel story.

Osiris as the Life Force in the Material World.

In addition, if Osiris resides in the netherworld for all eternity-a heavenly realm much the same as where Jesus is said to be-he nevertheless is resurrected again into the material world both as his own son on a daily basis and as the gift of life in several ways during the months and years, including as the light waxing in the moon and the inundating Nile. As such, Osiris is clearly a "dying and rising god," despite the magical waving away of the hand in certain circles.

In this regard, while Frankfort makes the distinction about Osiris obtaining renewed life in the netherworld, saying, "Osiris was resurrected, but he did not resume his former existence, i.e., he did not reascend the throne" and "Osiris was resurrected to a life in the Beyond,"[1944] he nonetheless states: His resurrection meant his entry upon life in the Beyond, and it was one of the inspiring truths of Egyptian religion that, notwithstanding his death, Osiris became manifest as life in the world of men. From his grave in the earth or in the depleted Nile, from the world of the dead, his power emanated, mysteriously transmuted into a variety of natural phenomena which had one common feature: they waxed and waned.[1945]

Frankfort further remarks: If many natural phenomena can be interpreted as resurrections, the power of resurrection is peculiarly Osiris' own. The divine figure of the dead king personified the resurgence of vitality which becomes manifest in the growing corn, the waxing flood, the increasing moon.[1946]

The Dutch Egyptologist concludes, "Hence, Osiris was the god of resurrection."[1947]

In addition, according to Mojsov: The western mountain of Thebes became the new residence of Osiris. In tomb decorations he was often represented rising out from the mountain's edge at dawn, his arms risen and his manhood ready to inseminate the new day.[1948]

From these decorations, the thousands of chapters, spells, hymns and prayers, and the annual ritual raising of Osiris that may have been celebrated thousands of times, it is apparent that the average Egyptian must have viewed Osiris as being renewed in this world, as well as the next. In addition, it should be recalled that, just as Christians believe Jesus to have been an actual, historical figure, so too did millions of Egyptians believe that Osiris had truly walked the earth, that he was verily and indeed killed, and that he was also verily raised from the dead. Hence, in this belief system, not a few adherents probably understood Osiris to have undergone a real, physical resurrection, especially after watching the annual Osirian "passion play," in which his body was displayed.

Another apology designed to differentiate between Osiris and Jesus claims that Osiris was not really dead, despite the fact that his body was ripped to pieces. As we have already seen abundantly, Osiris's resurrection was celebrated annually in "a rite symbolizing Osiris's revivification after death,"[1949] as asserted by respected Egyptologist Dr. James P. Allen. Osiris, having been murdered by Set, is clearly dead. Even so, as an immortal god, was Jesus himself ever really dead?

Yet another argument to distinguish between the resurrections of Osiris and Christ is that Osiris did not raise himself "on his own power." The reality is, of course, that neither did Christ, as he first pathetically begged God the Father in the garden of Gethsemane not to make him suffer his Passion (Mt 26:39, 42, 44; Mk 14:36, 39; Lk 22:42), and then cried out from the cross, "My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?" (Mt 27:46), finally commending himself into his father's hands. (Lk 24:36) In Christian mythology, it is clearly the power of God that resurrects Christ.

Moreover, the sun/Re and/or the king/deceased were viewed as self-renewing, representing their own fathers.[1950] Hence, they are in effect self-empowering. Demonstrating the self-empowerment maintained in the deceased's resurrection, in the Coffin Texts, the Osiris says, "I died yesterday, I raised myself today..."[1951] Furthermore, apart from the annual resurrection in which Isis is involved, when the sun dies on a nightly basis, it is Osiris's power itself that resurrects, as he is the Lord of Resurrections, as well as the Lord of Eternity and the Lord of Life. Like Jesus (Jn 11:25), therefore, Osiris himself in effect is the resurrection. It is once again interesting to note that this comment of Jesus-"I am the resurrection"-occurs only in the gospel of John, the most Egyptian of the canonical texts. Its presence there indicates that the Christian resurrection was indeed based significantly upon that of Osiris.

Bodily Necessity.

When perceiving Egyptian resurrection as it applied to the human deceased, it is not sufficient to deem it "merely" a spiritual matter, as, according to important Egyptian doctrines, while the resurrection could be viewed as "spiritual," in its totality it included and necessitated the physical and material. Concerning Osiris's resurrection and its meaning to the faithful, for example, Budge states: He became the type of eternal existence, and symbol of immortality; and as judge of the dead he was believed to exercise functions similar to those attributed to God. Through the sufferings and death of Osiris, the Egyptian hoped that his body might rise again in a transformed, glorified, and incorruptible shape, and the devotee appealed in prayer for eternal life to him who had conquered death and had become the king of the underworld through his victory and prayer.[1952]

Hence, in Osiris was the anticipation of the deceased also to be resurrected, and it is noteworthy that, through the god's resurrection, "the Egyptian hoped that his body might rise again," uncorrupted and glorified. This paragraph, of course, sounds very much like the doctrine of Christ's death and resurrection, as well as its promise to humanity.

Budge further clarifies the Egyptian concept of resurrection: The religious texts show that many different views were current about the resurrection of the body. The material body was called khat...a word meaning "something that decays," "corruption," etc., and Osiris had a material body of this kind. One view was that the very substance of this corruptible body was re-made and re-born by means of mummification, and by the magical and religious spells that were recited by properly qualified priests whilst the various processes were being carried out, and that the body of every man who appeared before Osiris was the actual body in which he lived upon earth. Another view was that the mummification and spells made to spring from the natural body another body which was identical with it in shape and form, but was so immaterial in character that it might be called a "spirit body."[1953]

In discussing BD 1, in reference to "Words which bring about Resurrection and Glory," as rendered in the rubric of the chapter, Renouf remarks, "The 'raising up' or 'resurrection' here spoken of is said not only of the soul but of the body of the deceased person."[1954] Adding to this contention, Budge states that "the belief...in the resurrection of the body and of everlasting life, is coeval with the beginnings of history in Egypt."[1955] Moreover, at PT 12:19-c/N 95-97 appear utterances for the "Ritual of Bodily Restoration of the Deceased" or "Restoration of the corpse..."[1956]

That there is more to the Egyptian religious doctrine than "just" a spiritual resurrection is obvious from the focus on the physical remains of the deceased: To ancient Egyptians, life's fulfillment was the journey into death. To enjoy an afterlife, two conditions rigid and unchanging need be met: The body must be intact-intact-hence, mummification. Secondly, the spiritual double of the deceased-called "ka"-must be provided.[1957]

Adding to this observation, Brier says, "To gain a perfect eternal life required an intact body,"[1958] and W.M. Davis notes, "If the body decayed..., it could not reach the Hereafter."[1959] Morenz remarks that "the purpose of mummification was to keep the body intact..."[1960] Morenz further states, "Who can say whether Egyptian mummies may not have had something to do with the Christian concept of 'resurrection of the flesh,' which belongs neither to the Old Testament religion nor to that of the earliest Christians, let alone to that of the Greeks?"[1961] Obviously, if the Egyptian and Christian ideas of resurrection were so disparate and exclusive, this respected Egyptologist would not have made this connection between them; nor would he specifically have mentioned that the resurrection was "of the flesh," unless the notion within the Egyptian religion also considered bodily resurrection.

The complex notion of resurrection within the Egyptian religion is explained by James Allen: The ancient Egyptians believed that each human being consists of three basic parts: the physical body and two nonmaterial elements known as the ka and the ba. The ka is an individual's life force, the element that makes the difference between a living body and a dead one; each person's ka ultimately came from the creator and returned to the gods at death. The ba is comparable to the Western notion of the soul or personality, the feature that makes each person a unique individual, apart from the physical element of the body.

At death, the ka separated from the body. In order for an individual to survive as a spirit in the afterlife, the ba had to be reunited with its ka, its life force: in the Pyramid Texts and elsewhere, the deceased are called "those who have gone to their kas." The resultant spiritual entity was known as an akh: literally, an "effective" being. No longer subject to the entropy of a physical body or the limitations of physical existence, the akh was capable of living eternally, not merely on earth but also in the larger cosmic plane inhabited by the gods. If the ba could not reunite with its ka, it continued to exist but was no longer "alive"; in contrast to the akhs, such beings were regarded as "the dead."

The function of the Pyramid Texts, in common with all ancient Egyptian funerary literature, was to enable the deceased to become an akh... Two forces played a key role in this transition, incorporated by the Egyptians in two gods, the Sun and Osiris....[1962]

The "ka" is thus the life force, similar to that called "chi" in the Eastern mystical system of Taoism, while the "ba" may be considered the soul or individual personality.[1963] The two together, "ka-ba," so to speak, constitute the "akh," which might be conceived as a "ghost" or "spirit," also representing the spiritual body.