As concerns the peculiar epithet "Iusa," it should be noted that "Jesus" in the original Greek is Iesous or Iasous,[1566] while in Arabic the name is Issa. In Croatian and other Slavic languages "Jesus" takes the forms of Isus, Isusu or Isusa, while in Irish and Gaelic the name is Iosa.[1567] Concerning, "Iusa," in Ancient Egypt, Light of the World, Gerald Massey remarks: The miracles of the virgin birth and physical resurrection of Jesus; the miracles of giving sight to the blind and of raising the dead, the descent into Hades, and the resurrection in three days or on the third day, are all Egyptian, all in the Ritual. They were previously performed by the Christ who was not historical, the Christ of the Egypto-gnostics who is Horus or Jesus, identical with the Osirian Christ who was Horus the lord by name, and who, as the records show, was also extant as a divine type or spiritual impersonation as Iusa or Iu-em-hetep many thousand years ago.[1568]

Not surprisingly, this term Iusa or Iu-sa is not found in encyclopedias or reference books on Egypt, such that it has been claimed to be a "fabrication." As Massey explains it, Iusa is a combination of the Egyptian word iu, also transliterated as iy, iw, ii, jj, jw or jwj, correctly stated by him to mean "to come,"[1569] and sa, likewise transliterated as za or z3, rightly defined as "son."[1570] Hence, Iu-sa would be "the coming son," which would refer to Horus on a daily and annual basis, if applied to him.

Massey further identifies Iusa as the child of the goddess Hathor-Iusaas.[1571] Regarding this goddess named "Iusaas," the English scholar states: ...She is a form of Isis or Hathor, to judge by her head-dress.... She is the mother of the son whose name is Iu-em-hept. She herself also has the title of Neb-hept, the mistress or lady of peace. The accented S in her name implies the earlier Sif; both Sa and Sif are names of the son who is Iu. As is a name of the genitrix, Isis; the As, the seat, chamber, house, bed, resting-place, maternal abode, the secreting part of the body. Iu-s-as is thus the As or womb of Iu-s, Iu-sif or Iu-su, the three modes of naming the son Iu. Iu means he who comes, and Iu-sa, Iu-su or Iu-sif, is the coming son, the messiah of mythology.[1572]

In an Egyptian text, the term iu sa refers to the evening sun god Tem, Tmu, Atmu or Atum "masturbating" his children Shu and Tefnut into existence, and was posited by Maspero to be related to the name of the solar goddess "Iusaaset,"[1573] Atum's eventual consort, who was the same as Iusaas, the goddess popular at Heliopolis, city of the sun.[1574] Indeed, this goddess is also deemed "Hathor-Iusas of Heliopolis," as related by German Egyptologist Dr. Johannes Dumichen (1833-1894), a professor at the University of Strasbourg.[1575] Iusaset was thus identified with Hathor, who in turn was "the goddess of the sky wherein Horus, the sun-god, rose and set."[1576] Since traditionally, the sky goddess is Nut, from whom is born the sun god, it could be said that Hathor is thus also Horus's mother, which in turn would make Iusaset his mother as well.

In this regard, in texts Horus is called sa Aset or "son of Isis,"[1577] while "Iu-sa-Aset" would simply translate as "coming son of Isis," an appropriate designation for her daily-born offspring. "Iusaaset" or "Iusaset" is in fact a "variant spelling" of "Iusaas" or "Iusas."[1578] As we have seen, Horus has been said to be identified with Hathor's son Ihy, the "first-born of Hathor," who "himself is the Sun, conceived of as a child emerging from his mother every day at dawn..."[1579] That it was the morning sun who was the "coming son" is further indicated by the depiction of the "boat of the day" carrying the morning sun god, who, "in the guise of a scabbard," is "the one 'coming into being.'"[1580]

According to Dr. Leitz, the goddess is likewise called the "Cobra Iusaas," who protects Atum-Re during a "big fight."[1581] Brugsch also discusses the goddess Hathor-Iusas, "mistress of heaven," wife of Tum at On/Heliopolis, and mother of Shu and Tefnut.[1582] Although she is depicted as Atum's "masturbating hand" that produces the "first beings,"[1583] as an epithet of Hathor, Iusas or Iusaset herself was at times the sole progenitor of the twins Shu and Tefnut,[1584] giving further credence to Massey's assessment of Iusa. Indeed, Shu and Tefnut are depicted as the eyes of Horus, thus essentially equating them with him. By the Ptolemaic Period, in fact, Horus and Shu are identified with each other, as "Horus-Shu."[1585]

In the Coffin Texts, Shu appears in the "trinity of becoming" with Atum-Shu/Tefnut,[1586] reflecting his role as the "coming son." Regarding the supposed "masturbation" that produced Shu and Tefnut, Morenz discusses the word ms, which means "to bring forth," remarking: ...this classical Heliopolitan concept of procreation need not by any means be described in this grossly sensual way, as onanism, but may be referred to simply and briefly as "bringing forth (ms)"; it was Atum who "brought forth" Shu and Tefnut.[1587]

Moreover, like Shu, Horus is also named in the Egyptian writings (e.g., PT 465:881b/P 316) as Atum's son or sa, as is the word in Egyptian.[1588] The "come in peace" god Iu-em-hetep/I-em-hetep/Imhotep is the child in a holy trinity, making him equivalent to Horus in the Osiris triad. In addition, Massey suggests that the son of Atum/Ptah, Iu-em-hetep,[1589] or just "Iu," is one with the Gnostic figure "Ieou" or "Iao," as in the famous Egypto-Gnostic text the Pistis Sophia.[1590] The Egyptian god Iao was identified by Diodorus with the Jewish tribal god Yahweh, while "Ieou" is likewise equivalent to Yahweh[1591] but could also apply to his son, Jesus, since they are one. (Jn 10:30) Interestingly, the "god of physicians," Iemhetep/Imhotep was equated by the Greeks, who called him "Imouthes," with the healing god Asclepius,[1592] who has also been claimed as one of the prototypes for Jesus. Hence, the identification of Iemhetep or "Iu" with both Horus and Jesus is reasonable, as is the determination of Horus as both the Word and Iusa.

The Shu Theology.

The significant god Shu "refers to 'luminous air,' light-filled living space," according to Assman.[1593] At CT Sp. 78 we discover that "the deceased is Shu (air) between earth and sky."[1594] Deemed by some to be "the void,"[1595] according to Dr. Jennifer Houser-Wegner, a co-curator at the Penn Museum, "Shu's name (w) meant 'dryness' or 'emptiness,'" the latter definition preferred by Goelet.[1596] Yet, Dr. Wegner continues, "This empty space was not considered as a void, but rather an arena for the possibility of activity."[1597] In referring to the "theology of Shu," principally laid out in the Coffin Texts (CT Sp. 75-80), Assman also says of its form during the Middle Kingdom: "Shu appears here as a god of the air between heaven and earth and the god of the breath of life 'in the nostrils' of the individual creatures."[1598] The German Egyptologist further relates that Shu is the life-giver: It is his duty to give life to creatures and provide them with the conditions necessary for life and keep them alive, and he does this on behalf of his father Atum the creator god.[1599]

Shu as the air and breath of life constitutes essentially the same role as that of the Holy Spirit, the pneuma, or "breath" and "wind" of God in Christian theology. Concerning Shu, Morenz remarks that he is "regarded as god of the air and bearer of heaven, at times also as the sun."[1600]

The hieroglyphic word for Shu, transliterated as w,[1601] is one of several using the same signs, with the difference of determinatives at the end, in the case of the deity, of course, the god sign o (A41). The basic word w E (H6, G43) with other determinatives can also mean "emptiness" "ascend" and, importantly, "sun" and "sunlight."[1602] This latter word is determined, of course, by the addition of the determinative representing "sun" and/or "Re/Ra" w (N5), revealing the intimate connection between Shu and the sun. Indeed, in one hymn the sun is addressed thus: "You have created yourself as the day-time sun (w)..."[1603] As concerns w here meaning "sun," Assman notes that in the Late Egyptian the term is equivalent to jtn or Aten in the Middle Egyptian.[1604]

As the god of air as well as of "the space between earth and sky and of the light that fills that space,"[1605] Shu is the sunlight at dawn,[1606] while Horus is the sun at dawn. In one of the "sunrise" sun hymns from the New Kingdom, Assman relates that Ra/Re in his rising appears "in the house of Shu,"[1607] once again demonstrating a connection to Horus, in the role of Horakhty. Another of the sun hymns addressing the God Sun also includes a description that sounds much like Shu-and quite possibly was, having been merged into the divine sun disc Aten during the Amarna period-in his typical cruciform posture: Your feet are on the earth, your head is in the sky.

You stand up with the strength of your arms, but your weight rests upon the secret.

The sky is over you, the underworld beneath you...

the wind is the air in your nostrils.[1608]

And from another hymn: You are the sky, the earth and the underworld, you are the water, you are the air between them.[1609]

This all-encompassing role reminds us once again of Jesus as the Alpha and Omega.

One of Shu's epithets is "life,"[1610] and the god has also been called the "creative life force"[1611] as well as "the god of air, light, and life..."[1612] Since Horus also is a god of the air, as well as light and the resurrecter to life, it is easy to see why he has been identified with Shu. In this regard, Wegner further remarks that "Shu might also be envisioned as the rays of the sun," [1613] a role likewise similar to that of Horus as the morning sun. In this regard, the texts describe the sun in the east, where "it rises as Shu,"[1614] in the same role as Horus of the Horizon, the morning sun.

Furthermore, Shu is again associated with Horus in the cartouche of Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten.[1615] Regarding the debate concerning the meaning of this pharaonic name, Morenz relates that most scholars have assumed Shu is "simply...a term for the sun."[1616] However, Morenz further remarks, it is more probable that the god's presence represents "an allusion...to Shu as son" of the "primordial god Re." Morenz also calls Shu a "more recent manifestation" of the sun god,[1617] in other words reflecting that, although Shu is a very old god, his solar significance is newer than that of Re-Horakhty, for example.

Whereas Shu and others, such as Ptah-Sokar-Osiris, are deemed "the separator," specifically between sky and earth,[1618] Horos too is "the boundary," and it is therefore possible that the same role occupied by Shu-an alter ego of Horus, especially in later times-was rehashed in that of the Gnostic Horos.

The identification of Shu with Horus is also made at CT Sp. 167, in which the deceased says, "May I come and go as Shu, for I am Shu, my face is that of the Great Flood, I am born as Horus of Shesmet..."[1619] Not only do we see Shu equated with Horus, but we also discover the "Great Flood" within Egyptian religion, meant both metaphorically and as referring to the Nile.

Commenting upon the identification of Shu with Horus, Maspero relates: Thus we find that Horus the son of Isis at Buto...Khnumu the son of Hathor at Esneh, were each in turn identified with Shu the son of Atumu, and lost their individualities in his... Through constant reiteration of the statement that the divine sons of the triads were identical with Shu...[1620]

In this same regard, Wiedemann states, in later times Horus the Elder "appears as Her-ur-Shu, the son of Ra..."[1621]

The deceased/Osiris too is identified with Shu in the Coffin Texts, as at CT Sp. 725: "O N-Shu, receive this bread of yours which is brought to you. I have placed sky and earth for you under son Horus, your heir..."[1622]

Demonstrating the totality of Egyptian deities, in various hymns Osiris is deemed "Lord of fear" and "great of terror," while at the site of Kom Ombo, the combined god Haroeris-Shu-"Haroeris" being Horus the Elder-is called "lord of carnage."[1623] Isis too is given "fearsome" attributes in later hymns.

During the Middle Kingdom, the god Shu became popular enough to warrant what is modernly called a "Shu Theology," as exemplified in the Coffin Texts. CT Sp. 75, for instance, is specifically devised "for the soul of Shu and for becoming Shu."[1624] In the same spell, Shu is the "one who foretells him when he ascends from the horizon," whom Faulkner suggests is the sun god, while "Shu is the god of air" and the "'foretelling' of the sunrise may refer to the atmospheric hues which announce the coming dawn."[1625] Shu is also "he who despatches the word of the Self-created to the multitudes,"[1626] like Jesus in his role as the Word of the Creator appearing to the masses. And we also hear that Shu is "one invisible of shape" and is "merged in the Sunshine-god,"[1627] reminding us both of the Ineffable God the Father and his "Sun of Righteousness" Jesus Christ. Also, in CT Sp. 80, Shu is "everlasting," and the speaker invites, "Come joyfully at meeting the god in me, for I am Shu, whom Atum fashioned, and this garment of mine is the air of life."[1628] Here may be the forerunner of the sentiment expressed in the New Testament to the effect of Christ saying, "Come unto me, learn of me, for I am Jesus, whom the Father created, and this garment of mine will heal you."[1629] As Jesus removes sin and bestows eternal life, so too is Shu the life-giver.

Shu, of course, is the son of Atum, the Primeval One, who was "alone in his existence,"[1630] as is said of the monotheistic biblical God. Discussing the "association between father and son" regarding Atum and Shu, Assman states that the relationship approaches a "unity of natures in terms that bring to mind the Christological formulae of the Early Church."[1631] Morenz cites the Coffin Texts as discussing Shu as the son of God, again comparable to Christ.[1632]

Another connection to Jesus and the "blood of the Lamb" comes with mention of the "blood of Shu" at CT Sp. 464.[1633] Also, while Jesus is called the "Lion of Judah" at Revelation 5:5, in CT Sp. 510 appears reference to "Shu the Lion."[1634] In CT Sp. 829, the deceased is also "the Lion," as well as Horus and "he who makes calm after storm."[1635] Yet another correspondence occurs between the story of Jesus borrowing the ass and her foal to ride into Jerusalem (Mt 21:5), and the "two asses of Shu," as at CT Sp. 662.[1636]

While the believer may rely on the Cross of Jesus, so too may the Egyptian deceased count on the "Supports of Shu" (CT Sp. 746).[1637] The support of the sky is evidently also considered as such for the various gods and goddesses, giving Shu or other Himmelstrager a salvational role as well.[1638] The mythological category of Himmelstrager or "Sky-maker" includes the Greek god Atlas and the Egyptian god eH.[1639]

At CT Sp. 990, the speaker says, "I have flown up to the sky as Shu the great,"[1640] reminding one of the promised "rapture" of modern times said to be rooted in biblical doctrine. Additionally, like Christ, who is kissed by Judas, Shu too is a recipient of a kiss at CT Sp. 1065.[1641] Moreover, like the welcoming Jesus, who invites the little children to "come unto him," at CT Sp. 101, we read, "Shu opens his arms to you..."[1642] Also in the Coffin Text (CT Sp. 1145), there is indication that it is Shu who is protector of the deceased's heart: "Your heart has been taken by Shu,"[1643] reminding one of the "sacred heart of Jesus." The Shu theology overall thus reflects a similar spirituality found in Christianity wherein the believers "let Jesus into their heart."

The resemblance between Shu and Jesus-called Jo-SHU-a or Ye-SHU-a in the Hebrew-is clear: The incarnated son of a "virgin" as life-bestower on behalf of the Father. The Shu Theology from its inception thus provides "foreshadowing" of the Christian story, with the only begotten son of God created parthenogenetically to serve essentially as savior of life on earth by supporting the heavens and giving air to all who breathe.

The Lord of Light and Lamb of God.

As is obvious, the Horus-Jesus connection is profound and meaningful, not to be dismissed lightly by a quick search of encyclopedia entries. Indeed, when we look closely at translations of Egyptian texts, we can compile a long list of numerous sacred epithets that undoubtedly made their way in some form into Christianity. The following constitutes such a compilation of some of the names applied to various deities in the Book of the Dead, including Osiris, Isis, Horus, Re, Anubis, Thoth and Seb: Lord of Lords, King of Kings, Lord of the Universe, Lord of Eternity, Lord of Truth, Savior, the Divine, All-Powerful, the Unknowable, Great God, Lord of All, Inviolate God, God of Justice, Lord of Justice, Lord of Right, Lord of Power, Lord of Might, God of Authority, the Sole and Only One, the Eternal One, Most Glorious One, His Majesty, Mighty One, God of Mighty Names, Mighty Enlightener, Wise One, Potent One, Holy Soul, Good Being, the Great, the Mighty, the Ancient One, Sovereign, Protector, Universal Lord, Author of Eternity, Eternal Lord, Ruler of Eternity, Ruler of Everlasting, Lord of Everlasting, King of Eternity, the Eternal King, King of Everlasting, Prince of Eternity, Prince of the divine Powers, Hereditary Prince of the gods, the Peaceful One, Lord of Resurrections, Lord of Righteousness, Lord of Life, Living Lord, Lord of Time, Lord of Life for All Eternity, Giver of Life from the Beginning, Master of masters, Supreme among gods, Father of the gods, Lord of the Gods, Leader of the gods, King of the gods, Everlasting King, King of Heaven, Lord of Persons, Lord of the Law, Leader of the Host, Primeval One, Great One, Son of a Great One, United of Good, Lord of mysteries, Lord of the Age, Lord of the Soul, Lord of Strength, Lord of Offerings, Defender in the Netherworld, Lord of the Unseen World, Lord of Oneness, Lord of the Earth, Lord of millions, Lord of Millions of Years, Lord on High, Lord of Light, Radiant One, the Giver of light, Lord of the Horizon, Lord of Daylight, Lord of the Sunbeams, Soul of his Father, Lord of Years, Lord of the Great Mansion, Lord of Grain, etc.[1644]

The plethora of sacred titles-which number some 140 in BD 142 for Osiris alone-reflects not only the tremendous reverence with which the Egyptian gods were held but also, in the case of Osiris in particular, the spread of his worship as well, as in the epithet "Osiris among the Aegean Islanders" and so on.[1645] As the biblical God the Father possesses "many mansions" (Jn 14:2), so too is Horus's father, Osiris, the "Lord of the Mansion," as at CT Sp. 36 as well, in which the god denies transgressors access to his Mansion.[1646] In CT Sp. 1119, Osiris is depicted as possessing "mansions,"[1647] while in CT Sp. 862, we also find mention of the "Mansion of Ptah,"[1648] Ptah being another "father of the gods." As but one of numerous demonstrations of the proximity between Osiris and Jesus, while "the Osiris" is the king/pharaoh, and Osiris is called "King of kings,"[1649] Jesus, of course, is considered the heir of King David and likewise the "King of kings." (1 Ti 6:15) The epithet "Lord of lords" also appears in the Coffin Texts, as at CT Sp. 888,[1650] while at CT Sp. 1033 appears reference to the "Lord of Wisdom."[1651]

The Pyramid Texts likewise demonstrate the correlations between the Egyptian and biblical scriptures, as at PT 364/T 196, in which the Osiris N. is addressed as follows: "You are the god in control, and there is no god like you."[1652] Compare this scripture with that at Exodus 20:2-3: "I am the Lord your god... You shall have no other gods before me." Considering how much of the Egyptian religion and culture the Israelites/Hebrews appear to have copied it is not unreasonable to suggest that the biblical scribes obtained this concept from the Egyptians. Of course, in this specific case copying may not necessarily be so, as this monotheistic concept could naturally occur to the human mind contemplating the cosmos. The parallel does, however, reveal that the Egyptians were not "spiritually deficient heathens," as has been suggested by religious rivals over the centuries.

In the long list of divine roles and titles applied to the gods in Egyptian texts there also appear a number of solar epithets, of course, such as the "Lord of Daylight," "Lord of Light," "Lord on High," "Lord of the Horizon" and "Lord of the Sunbeams." As another example of the astrotheological nature of the various sacred titles, again, regarding the epithet "Sole and Only One" used in BD 2, Renouf remarks that it is "one of the many appellatives of the Sun." He further states, "He is here represented as shining in or from the Moon."[1653]

In the same vein, one of the Coffin Texts says: "I am lord of the flame who lives on truth; lord of eternity maker of joy, against whom that worm shall not rebel. I am he who is in his shrine, master of action who destroys the storm; who drives off the serpents of many names when he goes from his shrine."[1654] The same text continues, "Lord of lightland, maker of light, who lights the sky with his beauty."[1655] This scripture is clearly about the sun, with the appropriate solar epithets. Note again the destruction or "calming" of the storm, as was said of Christ as well, as does Jesus also possess the power to "tread on serpents." (Lk 10:19) Another divine epithet that possesses astrotheological connotations is the "lamb of God," which at times refers to the sun in the Age of Aries and which may be applicable to Horus "the golden calf" after the end of the precessional Age of Taurus, when his power is transferred to the god Sobek.[1656] Says Massey, "As Egyptian, the lamb, 'son of a sheep,' had been a type of Horus who was called the child."[1657] Massey further remarks: In the text Horus is addressed as the "Sheep, son of a sheep; Lamb, son of a lamb," and invoked in this character as the protector and saviour of souls.... Horus is the Lamb of God the father, and is addressed by the name of the lamb who is the protector or saviour of the dead in the earth and Amenti.[1658]

Verifying these contentions, in The Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, Wilkinson notes that the "mystical inscription, stating Horus to be the god, son of a god, sheep, son of a sheep...is given by Messrs. Chabas and Pierret, in 'Zeitsch. f. aegypt. Spr.,' 1868, pp. 99-136."[1659] In Chaldean Magic, Lenormant relates Chabas's translation thus: "O sheep, son of a sheep! lamb son of a sheep..."[1660] In any event, it is apparent that Horus was essentially deemed the "lamb of God."

In light of these facts regarding so many divine epithets long prior to the Christian era, including the Egyptian deities as saviors, messiahs and christs, it seems unscientific and dishonest to conclude that the Jewish Christ figure constitutes a unique "divine revelation." Indeed, it could be asserted that, as Re, Osiris and Horus, et al., symbolized important astrotheological concepts, so too does Christ represent the personification of the sun, the real "way, life and truth," as well as "good shepherd," among many other divine epithets applied to the solar orb and its numerous adjuncts.

Was Horus "Crucified?"

"Osiris and Horus were crucified as 'saviors' and 'redeemers'; the sufferings, death, and resurrection of Osiris forming the great mystery of the Egyptian religion. Prometheus, of Greece, was with chains nailed to the rocks on Mount Caucasus, 'with arms extended,' as a saviour; and the tragedy of the crucifixion was acted in Athens 500 years before the Christian era...."

William W. Hardwicke, The Evolution of Man (218) "Osiris, the Egyptian Saviour, was crucified in the heavens. To the Egyptian the cross was the symbol of immortality, an emblem of the Sun, and the god himself was crucified to the tree, which denoted his fructifying power.

"Horus was also crucified in the heavens. He was represented, like...Christ Jesus, with outstretched arms in the vault of heaven."

Thomas W. Doane, Bible Myths and Their Parallels in Other Religions (484) "...[Horus] came from the...sacred birthplace... With outstretched arms he is the vault of heaven."

James Bonwick, Egyptian Belief and Modern Thought (157) "Horus shows himself in the image of the hawk whose wings span the sky..."

Dr. Eric Hornung, Conceptions of God in Ancient Egypt (124) In ancient mythology, in which immortal gods can die, the death of a deity is very significant and is often attended by a sentiment of redemption and salvation, such as the ultimate sacrifice of God's son in Jesus Christ. We have already seen how Osiris and Horus both were betrayed and murdered by their brother/uncle Typhon/Set, with Osiris's death plotted during a sort of "Last Supper" gathering.[1661] But were either Osiris or Horus "crucified," as has been claimed by a number of writers? Firstly, when it is asserted that Horus (or Osiris) was "crucified," it should be kept in mind that it was not part of the Osiris/Horus myth that the murdered god was held down and nailed to a cross, as we perceive the meaning of "crucified" to be, based on the drama we believe allegedly took place during Christ's purported passion. Rather, in one myth Osiris is torn to pieces before being raised from the dead, while Horus is stung by a scorpion prior to his resurrection. However, Egyptian deities, including Horus, were depicted in cruciform, with arms extended or outstretched, as in various images that are comparable to crucifixes, such as was discussed previously by Lundy, describing Horus as "cross-like" and a "type of Christ in...His triumph through the Cross." In addition, we find the peculiar Gnostic identification of Horus/Horos with the Cross, which may reflect a possible Egyptian mystery revolving around Horus as the sun god perhaps at the equinoxes, when day and night are the same length, and the sun is "hung on a cross."

The verb "to crucify" comes from the Latin crucifigere, which simply means "to fix to a cross" and does not necessarily signify to throw down to the ground and nail a living person to a cross. To be "crucified," therefore, could refer to an image of a god or man simply fixed to a cross, as in a crucifix. In discussing "crucifixion," then, the point to keep in mind is the contention that various mythical motifs such as the god with outstretched arms or the sun on the cross were already in existence and revered long prior to the common era, likely utilized in the weaving of the Christ myth. Again, we are not asserting that the creators of Christianity took an already fully formed myth and simply scratched out Osiris's or Horus's name and wrote in Jesus, but we are averring that there is little doubt existing themes were combined with Jewish scriptures, rendering a unique telling in the gospel story which is nonetheless based on Pagan precedents. These pre-Christian motifs include the cross as a religious object, as well as venerated images of gods in the shape of a cross or crosses with men on them.

The Pre-Christian Cross and Crucifix Although many people may not realize it, the cross is a very ancient sacred symbol long predating the Christian era, when it is pretended to have gained significance. In "Archaeology of the Cross and Crucifix," the Catholic Encyclopedia discusses the history of the cross, its use as a punishment, its appearance in pre-Christian art with a god upon it, and the Egyptian origin of one form: The sign of the cross, represented in its simplest form by a crossing of two lines at right angles, greatly antedates, in both the East and the West, the introduction of Christianity. It goes back to a very remote period of human civilization....

The penalty of the cross goes back probably to the arbor infelix, or unhappy tree, spoken of by Cicero...and by Livy.... According to Huschke...the magistrates known as duoviri perduellionis pronounced this penalty...styled also infelix lignum.... This primitive form of crucifixion on trees was long in use, as Justus Lipsius notes.... Such a tree was known as a cross (crux). On an ancient vase we see Prometheus bound to a beam which serves the purpose of a cross.... [Emph. added.]

In Greek it is called [stauros], which Burnoff would derive from the Sanskrit stavora. The word was, however, frequently used in a broad sense. Speaking of Prometheus nailed to Mount Caucasus, Lucian uses the substantive and the verbs [anastauroo] and [anaskolopizo], the latter being derived from [skolops], which also signifies a cross....

...The Christian apologists, such as Tertullian (Apol., xvi; Ad. Nationes, xii) and Minucius Felix (Octavius, lx, xii, xxviii), felicitously replied to the pagan taunt by showing that their persecutors themselves adored cruciform objects....

...It would seem that St. Anthony bore a cross in the form of tau on his cloak, and that it was Egyptian in origin....[1662]

Thus, the CE states that the sign of the cross is very ancient and that the Greek god Prometheus was portrayed as having been bound to a "cross-beam" both on an ancient pot and in the writing of Lucian (c. 125-180 AD/CE), who used two Greek words for "cross": stauros and skolops. Both of these terms mean "stake," with stauros specified as an "upright cross" and serving as the same word used in the New Testament concerning Jesus's death. Indeed, the original term in the New Testament Greek is or stauroo, which means "to stake" as well as "to crucify." It is also important to keep in mind that the "unhappy tree" upon which one may be hung is, according to the Catholic Encyclopedia, likewise "known as a cross." In the biblical book of Acts (10:39, 13:29), in fact, Christ is depicted as having been hung on a tree.[1663] Again, that the cross possessed significance before Christ allegedly died upon it is indicated in the gospel story itself, when Christ tells his followers to "take up their crosses" in order to follow him. (Mt 16:24; Mk 10:21; Lk 14:27) As regards pre-Christian images of gods on crosses or in the shape of a cross ("cruciform"), in his Apology (16) Church father Tertullian remarks: We have shown before that your deities are derived from shapes modelled from the cross. But you also worship victories, for in your trophies the cross is the heart of the trophy. The camp religion of the Romans is all through a worship of the standards, a setting the standards above all gods. Well, as those images decking out the standards are ornaments of crosses. All those hangings of your standards and banners are robes of crosses.[1664]

The place where Tertullian has "shown before" that the Pagan gods were cross-shaped was in his treatise Ad Nationes, in which he remarks: Chapter 12.-The Charge of Worshipping a Cross. The Heathens Themselves Made Much of Crosses in Sacred Things; Nay, Their Very Idols Were Formed on a Crucial [Crosslike] Frame.

As for him who affirms that we are "the priesthood of a cross," we shall claim him as our co-religionist. A cross is, in its material, a sign of wood; amongst yourselves also the object of worship is a wooden figure. Only, while with you the figure is a human one, with us the wood is its own figure. Never mind for the present what is the shape, provided the material is the same: the form, too, is of no importance, if so be it be the actual body of a god. If, however, there arises a question of difference on this point what, (let me ask,) is the difference between the Athenian Pallas, or the Pharian Ceres, and wood formed into a cross, when each is represented by a rough stock, without form, and by the merest rudiment of a statue of unformed wood? Every piece of timber which is fixed in the ground in an erect position is a part of a cross, and indeed the greater portion of its mass. But an entire cross is attributed to us, with its transverse beam, of course, and its projecting seat. Now you have the less to excuse you, for you dedicate to religion only a mutilated imperfect piece of wood, while others consecrate to the sacred purpose a complete structure. The truth, however, after all is, that your religion is all cross, as I shall show. You are indeed unaware that your gods in their origin have proceeded from this hated cross. Now, every image, whether carved out of wood or stone, or molten in metal, or produced out of any other richer material, must needs have had plastic hands engaged in its formation. Well, then, this modeller, before he did anything else, hit upon the form of a wooden cross, because even our own body assumes as its natural position the latent and concealed outline of a cross. Since the head rises upwards, and the back takes a straight direction, and the shoulders project laterally, if you simply place a man with his arms and hands outstretched, you will make the general outline of a cross. Starting, then, from this rudimental form and prop, as it were, he applies a covering of clay, and so gradually completes the limbs, and forms the body, and covers the cross within with the shape which he meant to impress upon the clay; then from this design, with the help of compasses and leaden moulds, he has got all ready for his image which is to be brought out into marble, or clay, or whatever the material be of which he has determined to make his god. (This, then, is the process:) after the cross-shaped frame, the clay; after the clay, the god. In a well-understood routine, the cross passes into a god through the clayey medium. The cross then you consecrate, and from it the consecrated (deity) begins to derive his origin.[1665]

In these two passages we find some startling contentions about which many people may not be aware: To wit, the non-Christians possessed crosslike sacred objects and revered their idols of gods in the shape of a cross or in cruciform. In fact, Tertullian is very insistent on this point, stating of the Pagans: "your religion is all cross" and "your gods in their origin have proceeded from this hated cross." The Church father then proceeds to describe the human body with its arms outstretched as a model of the cross, a description that invokes the Egyptian cross-the crux ansata, or ankh, which represents eternal life, precisely as Jesus's cross is symbolic of everlasting life. In consideration of the fact that the ankh does indeed resemble a human being in cruciform, or on a crucifix, it is possible that Jesus's purported crucifixion was a contrivance based in part at least on this pervasive and highly important Egyptian image that had been significant for thousands of years by the time of Christ's alleged existence. This suggestion becomes even more likely when one considers how widely used was the ankh or crux ansata in early Egypto-Christian art. Indeed, the Copts themselves consistently used ankhs as symbols of the cross within their own brand of Christianity. As related by Rev. James Leslie Houlden, a professor of Theology at King's College, London: "...the Copts claim that the early Church of Alexandria had long used the ancient Ankh symbol as Egypt's cross."[1666]

While Osiris is commonly associated with the ankh, so thorough has Horus's relationship been with it as well that one speaks of the "Horus cross" and "cross of Horus," which again lends credence to the idea that the Horos-Stauros was in reality based on the Egyptian god Horus.

Moreover, certain ankhs are depicted with arms and hands bearing objects, such as at Philae, where two ankhs are portrayed holding "was-scepters," the head of which has been speculated to represent either a type of animal or the god Set. In this case, the image resembles either Osiris or Horus throttling Set. The point here, however, is that these crosses are clearly anthropomorphized, representing humans to some extent-and that they resemble stylized crucifixes. Furthermore, in early Egyptian art we find primitive human images in the shape of the "crooked cross" or swastika; thus, again we possess anthropomorphized crosses or crucifixes, long pre-dating Christianity.

In addition, contrary to the impression given by the gospel story and Christian tradition, in addressing the Romans in his Octavius (29), Church father and Christian apologist Minucius Felix (fl. between 150 and 300?) denied that the Christians worshipped either the cross or a "criminal" upon it, remarking: CHAP. XXIX.-ARGUMENT: NOR IS IT MORE TRUE THAT A MAN FASTENED TO A CROSS ON ACCOUNT OF HIS CRIMES IS WORSHIPPED BY CHRISTIANS...

For in that you attribute to our religion the worship of a criminal and his cross, you wander far from the neighbourhood of the truth, in thinking either that a criminal deserved, or that an earthly being was able, to be believed God. Miserable indeed is that man whose whole hope is dependent on mortal man, for all his help is put an end to with the extinction of the man. The Egyptians certainly choose out a man for themselves whom they may worship... Crosses, moreover, we neither worship nor wish for. You, indeed, who consecrate gods of wood, adore wooden crosses perhaps as parts of your gods. For your very standards, as well as your banners, and flags of your camp, what else are they but crosses gilded and adorned? Your victorious trophies not only imitate the appearance of a simple cross, but also that of a man affixed to it.[1667]

In The Non-Christian Cross (ch. II), John Denham Parsons calls these statements a "remarkable denunciation of the Cross as a Pagan symbol by a Christian Father who lived as late as the third century after Christ..." Moreover, while thus denying that Christians worship the cross, Felix contended that the Romans themselves possessed crucifixes. The assertion is all the more peculiar in consideration of the fact that Christ himself was never represented in art on a cross or as a crucifix, until the late fifth to sixth centuries.[1668] Furthermore, Minucius says that the Christians also do not worship an "earthly being," giving the impression that Christ was never a mortal man on Earth. Regarding this apparent contention, Felix translator and professor of Classical Studies at the University of Melbourne, Dr. G.W. Clarke, comments, "A remarkable avoidance of any mention of the Incarnation.... Indeed, so anxious is [Minucius Felix] to avoid admitting such a difficult doctrine that he gives the appearance of denying it..."[1669] In fact, Minucius seems to be toeing the party line of the Docetists, a group of Gnostics who did not believe in the Incarnation. Regarding the Gnostic distaste for matter and flesh, as well as the Docetic denial of Christ's incarnation, theologian Rev. Dr. Cyril Richardson states: Other serious consequences followed from the Gnostic disparagement of the body. The doctrine of the incarnation was denied. Jesus only "appeared": he did not genuinely take on human flesh. Hence these Gnostics came to be known as "Docetics" (from dokeo, appear)... [1670]

This denial of Christ come in the flesh-recorded in the canonical epistles of John (1 Jn 4:3; 2 Jn 1:7)-would constitute an admission that the gospel story is essentially mythical and therefore no more historical than the myths of other cultures. Adding to this air of mythicalness, in his First Apology, early Church father Justin Martyr discusses a number of important correspondences between Christianity and Pagan mythology:

Chapter 21. Analogies to the history of Christ.

And when we say also that the Word, who is the first-birth of God, was produced without sexual union, and that He, Jesus Christ, our Teacher, was crucified and died, and rose again, and ascended into heaven, we propound nothing different from what you believe regarding those whom you esteem sons of Jupiter. For you know how many sons your esteemed writers ascribed to Jupiter: Mercury, the interpreting word and teacher of all; aesculapius, who, though he was a great physician, was struck by a thunderbolt, and so ascended to heaven; and Bacchus too, after he had been torn limb from limb; and Hercules, when he had committed himself to the flames to escape his toils; and the sons of Leda, and Dioscuri; and Perseus, son of Danae; and Bellerophon, who, though sprung from mortals, rose to heaven on the horse Pegasus.[1671]

Surprisingly, Martyr insists that, in contending Jesus Christ to have been "produced without sexual union," crucified and resurrected, Christians are "propounding nothing different" from what the Pagans believed regarding the "sons of Jupiter"-a fact that most people may be amazed to hear! How many have been taught that the "sons of Jupiter"-ancient Greek and Roman gods-were "born of a virgin" and crucified, rose from the dead and ascended into heaven, like Jesus?

In addition, we must wonder precisely who in this list fits with which characteristic. As previously noted, we know that, according to Justin, it was Perseus who was born of the virgin Danae. We also know that, among others-including Osiris and Horus-it is Bacchus, or Dionysus, who was resurrected,[1672] but who was crucified? Martyr's contention that Christians propound nothing new leads us to investigate very seriously the claims regarding various pagan gods having been "shaped like crosses" or on crosses, as Tertullian and Minucius Felix assert, as well as "crucified," as Justin himself notes. We must further recall the words of the Catholic Encyclopedia regarding the Greek god Prometheus as having been depicted on a cross. And we need to be mindful of the definition of crucifigere, whence comes "crucify," meaning "to fix on a cross," but not necessarily to toss a human being to the ground and nail him to a piece of wood. The cross to which one may be fixed, of course, could be any substance, including "space" or the "vault of heaven," as we shall see. The motifs of both the cross and the god on the cross or in cruciform were thus popular long before the common era-and these revered pre-Christian motifs are evidently direct lifts into the Christian religion.

With these facts at hand, could there be any truth to the assertion that any Egyptian gods were "crucified?" Firstly, we have seen that the crux ansata or ankh represented a highly popular sacred object for thousands of years prior to the common era. We have also noted that the ankh resembles a human being with arms outstretched in the shape of a cross or in cruciform. Moreover, in very archaic times in Egypt humans were likewise depicted in the shape of the swastika or crooked cross, likewise appearing in cruciform.

In addition, over the millennia-greatly antedating Christianity-the cross has been a symbol of the sun,[1673] for a variety of reasons, including the sun's crossing the sky, as well as it being "hung on a cross" during the equinoxes and a predominant image created when the solar orb is on the horizon. In this regard, in numerous Egyptian scriptures, the sun is depicted as "crossing over" the sky, by its movement essentially making the sign of the cross.[1674] In reality, sunrise is the time of "Horus who crosses the sky," as in a sunrise hymn.[1675] One sun hymn addressing Horus says: How "passing over" you are, Harakhty completing your task of yesterday every day The one who creates the years and joins together the days and months days and nights the hours correspond to his stride....[1676]

This paean is astrotheological and is also reminiscent of the Judeo-Christian interpretation of the Creator. The God Sun is likewise addressed as the one who "crosses the heavens and passes through the underworld." Self-renewing, he is ever watchful and awake. He is omnipresent, as the "light on every way."[1677]

This idea of the sun god "passing over" or "crossing over" is thus repeated many times in the ancient texts, his movements representing a sort of "crossification."[1678] Indeed, in the Coffin Texts appear many references to the "crossing over" of the sky by the sun.[1679] Along the same lines, the deceased at CT Sp. 357 possesses the epithet of "he who crosses the sky."[1680] The sign of the cross is also formed as the sun god "crosses the Two Lands night and day..."[1681]

The significance of saying that the sun god was "crucified" is not that his myth follows the gospel story exactly but that he was a revered pre-Christian god "on a cross" and that this particular motif was adopted by those who created the Christian myth specifically for the reason that it was a popular and revered theme.

It is fitting, therefore, for any number of "suns gods" or solar aspects and epithets to be associated with the cross. In this regard, the Egyptian Primeval or "First Cause" God Atum is likewise depicted with arms outstretched, as at CT Sp. 136: "...I have extended my arms, I have ruled the sky..."[1682] In reality, Atum in cruciform is not alone, as there were several others in the Egyptian religion in a similar position.

Shu in Cruciform.

Another of these crucial gods is Atum's son, Shu, who in the later periods, a few centuries before the common era, became combined with Horus. Shu is thus shown in images in cruciform, separating the earth from the sky, at times holding numerous ankhs or crosses of eternal life.[1683] The identification of the crosslike Shu "the uplifter" who separates heaven from earth with Horus seems much like the predecessor of the Gnostic Horos as Stauros, the Cross. Interestingly, while "Shu" thus appears in the shape of a cross, the word in Sahidic Coptic for "cross," as in the wooden stave, is she, shay or shi.[1684]

According to Massey, Shu is the "uplifter of the heavens," "establisher of the equinox,"[1685] "raiser of the four pillars of the four quarters."[1686] In Ancient Egypt, Light of the World, Massey says of Shu, "He is a pillar of support to the firmament as founder of the double equinox.... It was at the equinoctial level that the quarrel of Sut and Horus was settled for the time being by Shu. Shu thus stands for equinox as the link of connection betwixt Sut and Horus in the north and south."[1687]

In this regard, Richard Darlow writes: "The Egyptians referred to the four bright stars that formed a great cross in their sky as 'the Pillars of Shu,' or 'the Four Supports of the Heavens,' these stars occupying the constellations of Leo, Scorpio, Aquarius and Taurus."[1688]

Horus of the Cross.

We have previously reviewed the contention that the Valentinian Gnostics of Alexandria utilized Egyptian mythology in their creation and that the god Horus was associated with the Gnostic Horos, who was in turn identified with the Cross. Indeed, it is possible that the "confusion" of Horus with "the Cross" was likewise a deliberate contrivance based on Egyptian mythological motifs and imagery. This development is intimated in the Encyclopedia Britannica's entry concerning "Valentinus": A figure entirely peculiar to Valentinian Gnosticism is that of Horos (the Limiter). The name is perhaps an echo of the Egyptian Horus. The peculiar task of Horos is to separate the fallen aeons from the upper world of aeons. At the same time he became (first, perhaps, in the later Valentinian systems) a kind of world-creative power, who in this capacity helps to construct an ordered world out of Sophia and her passion. He is also called, curiously enough, Stauros (cross), and we frequently meet with references to the figure of Stauros. But we must not be in too great a hurry to conjecture that this is a Christian figure. Speculations about the Stauros are older than Christianity, and a Platonic conception may have been at work here. Plato had already stated that the world-soul revealed itself in the form of the letter Chi (); by which he meant that the figure described in the heavens by the intersecting orbits of the sun and the planetary ecliptic. Since through this double orbit all the movements of the heavenly powers are determined, so all "becoming" and all life depended on it, and thus we can understand the statement that the world-soul appears in the form of an X, or a cross. The cross can also stand for the wondrous aeon on whom depends the ordering and life of the world, and thus Horos-Stauros appears here as the first redeemer of Sophia from her passions, and as the orderer of the creation of the world which now begins. This explanation of Horos, moreover, is not a mere conjecture, but one branch of the Valentinian school, the Marcosians, have expressly so explained this figure. Naturally, then, the figure of Horos-Stauros was often in later days assimilated to that of the Christian Redeemer.[1689]

As is clear here and elsewhere, the identification of Horos with Horus is not unreasonable or unwarranted, especially since it has been asserted by Witt, for one, that Epiphanius's virgin-born Aion or Aeon is Horus. Serving as further comparison, Horos the Cross constitutes a "world-creative power," indicative of the overarching role of the Egyptian sun god. The Horos-Cross helps to order the world after Sophia suffers a passion, resembling the myth of Horus assisting Isis in restoring Osiris after his passion. Indeed, both Horos and Horus play the role of Redeemer. Moreover, the EB says that speculations concerning "Stauros"-a personified cross of theological significance-are "older than Christianity."

Indeed, the "world-soul" can be found as a cross in Plato's writings four centuries before the common era. Regarding the influence of Platonic thinking upon Christianity, Princeton University professor of History Dr. Peter Brown (b. 1935) remarks: ...pagan Platonists regarded the Christian myth of redemption-an Incarnation, a Crucifixion and a Resurrection of the body-as a barbarous innovation on the authentic teachings of their master. To them, it was as if some vandal had set up a vulgar and histrionic piece of Baroque sculpture beneath the ethereal dome of a Byzantine church. The more "liberal" pagan Platonists had hoped to "civilize" the Christian churches by writing "In the beginning was the Word" in golden letters on their walls; but they would not tolerate even S. John when he said that "The Word was made flesh."[1690]

In other words, the Platonists assumed that the Christians had essentially plagiarized Plato's doctrines and had historicized and carnalized them, to which they strenuously objected. Such contentions would indicate these Platonists did not consider "Jesus Christ" to have been a historical character but, rather, a vulgar anthropomorphization and historicization of Platonic ideals.