19. the White House claimed the White House claimed: Department of State, for the Press, No. 249, May 6, 1960; Department of State, for the Press, No. 254, May 9, 1960.

20. But Khrushchev had evidence But Khrushchev had evidence: Incoming telegram, Department of State, Control 6700, May 10, 1969.

21. With great bravado With great bravado: W. Taubman, Khrushchev, Khrushchev, 45558. 45558.

22. "I would like to resign" "I would like to resign": P. Taubman, Secret Empire, Secret Empire, 396. 396.

23. Eisenhower wouldn't bow Eisenhower wouldn't bow: Bamford, Body of Secrets, Body of Secrets, 5354. "For Eisenhower, the whole process was quickly turning into Chinese water torture. Every day he was being forced to dribble out more and more of the story." 5354. "For Eisenhower, the whole process was quickly turning into Chinese water torture. Every day he was being forced to dribble out more and more of the story."

24. "the first time any nation had publicly admitted": Brugioni, Eyeball to Eyeball, Eyeball to Eyeball, 49. 49.

25. authorized a Soviet military base authorized a Soviet military base: Ibid., 55.

26. twenty-five minutes' time twenty-five minutes' time: Havana, Cuba, to Was.h.i.+ngton, DC, is 1,130 miles. In 1960, a Russian missile traveled at approximately Mach 3.5.

27. During Powers's trial During Powers's trial: "Report on Conclusion of Powers Trial, USSR International Affairs," August 22, 1960, approved for release September 1985, 39 pages.

28. "Las Vegas firing range (poligon) in the Nevada desert": Ibid., RB-6.

29. "criminal conspiracy" "criminal conspiracy": Ibid.

30. "follower of Hitler" "follower of Hitler": Ibid., RB-20.

31. Watertown as the U-2 training facility Watertown as the U-2 training facility: Powers, Operation Overflight, Operation Overflight, 114. 114.

32. out at the Ranch out at the Ranch: Parangosky, The Oxcart Story, The Oxcart Story, 67. 67.

33. Richard Bissell had a tennis court put in Richard Bissell had a tennis court put in: Interview with Dr. Wheelon.

34. Prohibited Area P-275 Prohibited Area P-275: Interview with Peter Merlin.

35. "thirteen million different parts": Bissell, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, 133. 133.

36. the t.i.tanium that first held everything up the t.i.tanium that first held everything up: Pedlow and Welzenbach, Central Intelligence Agency, Central Intelligence Agency, 2122. 2122.

37. nearly 95 percent of what Lockheed initially received nearly 95 percent of what Lockheed initially received: Robarge, Archangel, Archangel, 11. 11.

38. Russia was spending billions of rubles Russia was spending billions of rubles: Interview with Ed Lovick.

39. "who thought ELINT was a dirty word": Poteat, "Engineering and the CIA," 24.

40. Barnes was recruited by the CIA Barnes was recruited by the CIA: Interview with Barnes; CIA Personal Resume, 1966, Barnes, Thornton Duard.

41. Castro's regime "must be overthrown Castro's regime "must be overthrown": Bissell, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, 153. 153.

42. "Richard Bissell," Kennedy said "Richard Bissell," Kennedy said: Thomas, "Wayward Spy," 36.

43. put a bullet in his own head put a bullet in his own head: Weiner, Legacy of Ashes, Legacy of Ashes, 303. 303.

44. Bahia de Cochinos, or the Bay of Pigs Bahia de Cochinos, or the Bay of Pigs: Kirkpatrick, The Real CIA, The Real CIA, chapter 8; Pfeiffer, chapter 8; Pfeiffer, CIA's Official History of the Bay of Pigs; CIA's Official History of the Bay of Pigs; Warner, "CIA's Internal Probe." Warner, "CIA's Internal Probe."

45. could help in gathering intel could help in gathering intel: Oral history interview with Richard M. Bissell Jr. by Theodore A. Wilson and Richard D. McKinzie, East Hartford, Connecticut, July 9, 1971.

46. Bissell blamed the mission's failure on his old rival General Curtis LeMay Bissell blamed the mission's failure on his old rival General Curtis LeMay: Bissell, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, 176. In discussing the decision of the Joint Chiefs, which included LeMay sitting in for the commandant of the Marines, "to cancel the air strikes so readily," Bissell stated, "one could make a case that their view reflected rivalry between the air force and the CIA. The agency's earlier success with the overhead reconnaissance programs had disturbed certain high-ranking members of the air force." Certainly he is referring to LeMay. "Friends of mine in the military spoke frankly to me about this," Bissell added. "There was no denying that the sentiment existed among military that all the air activities undertaken by the CIA in the U-2, SR-71 [note: Oxcart had not been decla.s.sified yet] and spy satellite programs should have come under jurisdiction of the air force. Robert Amory recalled in a 1966 interview that, after I was put in charge of the U-2 program, 'essentially the air force's eye was wiped in you-know-what and they resented that from the beginning.'" For Bissell, "the resentment never died." 176. In discussing the decision of the Joint Chiefs, which included LeMay sitting in for the commandant of the Marines, "to cancel the air strikes so readily," Bissell stated, "one could make a case that their view reflected rivalry between the air force and the CIA. The agency's earlier success with the overhead reconnaissance programs had disturbed certain high-ranking members of the air force." Certainly he is referring to LeMay. "Friends of mine in the military spoke frankly to me about this," Bissell added. "There was no denying that the sentiment existed among military that all the air activities undertaken by the CIA in the U-2, SR-71 [note: Oxcart had not been decla.s.sified yet] and spy satellite programs should have come under jurisdiction of the air force. Robert Amory recalled in a 1966 interview that, after I was put in charge of the U-2 program, 'essentially the air force's eye was wiped in you-know-what and they resented that from the beginning.'" For Bissell, "the resentment never died."

47. if LeMay had provided adequate air cover if LeMay had provided adequate air cover: Ibid., 175. " "Curtis LeMay (who was sitting in for the absent commandant of the Marines) and several of the chiefs admitted their doubt about the absolute essentiality of air cover... I was shocked. We all knew only too well that without air support, the project would fail."

48. "time zone confusion" "time zone confusion": Ibid., 189. Bissell wrote, "When the B-26s lumbered into the air the next day, however, no navy cover appeared. It seemed that a misunderstanding about the correct time standard had prevented the air support from being at the target area when expected. As a result, the B-26s were either forced from the field of battle or shot down, the final tragic blow." From the National Security Archive: "The unmarked jets failed to rendezvous with the bombers, however, because the CIA and the Pentagon were unaware of a time zone difference between Nicaragua and Cuba."

49. Lyman B. Kirkpatrick Jr. Lyman B. Kirkpatrick Jr.: Interviews with Jim Freedman.

50. Lyman Kirkpatrick contracted polio Lyman Kirkpatrick contracted polio: Biography of Lyman B. Kirkpatrick, Princeton University Library, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Seeley G. Mudd Ma.n.u.script Library, Public Policy Papers. Lyman B. Kirkpatrick Papers, circa 19332000, Call Number MC209.

51. relegated to the role of second-tier bureaucrat relegated to the role of second-tier bureaucrat: In his memoir, Bissell does not mince words. He calls Kirkpatrick "an ambitious man who, in spite of paralysis from polio, aspired to position of director of central intelligence. His illness necessitated a move from the exciting and challenging directorate of plans to the more mundane, bureaucratic position of inspector general, a s.h.i.+ft he always resented." Bissell, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, Reflections of a Cold Warrior, 193. 193.

Chapter Nine: The Base Builds Back Up.

Interviews with Harry Martin, Jim Freedman, T. D. Barnes, Al O'Donnell, Peter Merlin, Millie Meierdierck 1. the man in charge of property control at Area 51 the man in charge of property control at Area 51: Interviews with Jim Freedman, T. D. Barnes, Al O'Donnell.

2. "The high and rugged northeast perimeter": Interview with Peter Merlin, who obtained copies (largely redacted) of Kirkpatrick's visit to Area 51 from the CIA's online reading room (CIA.gov). These doc.u.ments appear to have since been removed.

3. "Bay of Pigs will embolden the Soviets": Absher, Mind-Sets and Missiles, Mind-Sets and Missiles, 10. 10.

4. Area 51 was a target Area 51 was a target: Interviews with Peter Merlin, Jim Freedman.

5. decided to make a hunting trip decided to make a hunting trip: Interview with Jim Freedman; Hank Meierdierck's personal papers.

6. Richard Bissell resigned Richard Bissell resigned: Oral history interview with Richard M. Bissell Jr. by Theodore A. Wilson and Richard D. McKinzie, East Hartford, Connecticut, July 9, 1971 (Harry S. Truman Library and Museum), http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/bissellr.htm.

7. keep the CIA in the spy plane business keep the CIA in the spy plane business: Welzenbach, "Science and Technology," 23.

8. Richard Bissell alone, had gone rogue Richard Bissell alone, had gone rogue: Ibid., 22.

9. CIA might work in better partners.h.i.+p CIA might work in better partners.h.i.+p: Richelson, Wizards of Langley, Wizards of Langley, 5860. 5860.

10. "Wayne Pendleton was the head of the radar group": Interview with Wayne Pendleton.

11. "and 'dirty tricks' of d.i.c.k Bissell's": Welzenbach, "Science and Technology," 22. The full pa.s.sage reads: "However, a note of discord crept into Bissell's relations with Land and Killian... both Land and Killian looked upon science and technology almost as a religion, something sacred to be kept from contamination by those who would misuse it for unwholesome ends. Into this category fit the covert operations and dirty tricks of d.i.c.k Bissell's Directorate of Plans."

12. called Teak and Orange called Teak and Orange: Film footage viewed at the Atomic Testing Museum, Las Vegas.

13. which is exactly where the ozone layer lies which is exactly where the ozone layer lies: h.o.e.rlin, "United States High-Alt.i.tude Test," 43.

14. "The impetus for these tests": Ibid., 47.

15. his rationale his rationale: Ground stations were supposed to measure acoustic waves that would happen as a result of the blast but Teak detonated seven miles laterally off course to the south and the communication systems were knocked out. Orange detonated four miles higher than it was supposed to and "the deviations affected data acquisitions."

16. The animals' heads had been locked in gadgets The animals' heads had been locked in gadgets: Oral history interview with Air Force colonel John Pickering, 52. Film footage viewed at the Atomic Testing Museum, Las Vegas.

17. "Teak and Orange events would 'burn a hole' into the natural ozone layer": h.o.e.rlin, "United States High-Alt.i.tude Test," 43.

18. Von Braun can be seen examining the Redstone rocket Von Braun can be seen examining the Redstone rocket: Teak shot film footage viewed at the Atomic Testing Museum library, Las Vegas.

19. left the island before the second test left the island before the second test: Interview with Al O'Donnell; Neufeld, Von Braun, Von Braun, 332. 332.

20. to dash up to Hitler's lair to dash up to Hitler's lair: Neufeld, Von Braun, Von Braun, 127. 127.

21. project called Operation Argus commenced project called Operation Argus commenced: Final Review of Argus Fact Sheet, 16 Apr. 82. "The tests were conducted in complete secrecy and were not announced until the following year."

22. Christofilos convinced Killian Christofilos convinced Killian: Killian, Sputnik, Scientists and Eisenhower, 187. 187.

23. "probably the most spectacular event ever conducted" "probably the most spectacular event ever conducted": The White House Memorandum for the President, From J.R. Killian Jr., Subject: Preliminary Results of the ARGUS experiment, dated November 3, 1958, decla.s.sified 5/20/77.

24. Walter Sullivan hand-delivered a letter to Killian Walter Sullivan hand-delivered a letter to Killian: The letter is marked "By Hand" and dated February 2, 1959, written on New York Times New York Times letterhead, and addressed to Dr. James R. Killian Jr. at the White House. letterhead, and addressed to Dr. James R. Killian Jr. at the White House.

25. "Neither confirm nor deny such leaks" "Neither confirm nor deny such leaks": Memorandum to Dr. James R. Killian, Jr. Subject: Release of Information on ARGUS. Dated January 20, 1959, signed Karl G. Harr, Jr. Special a.s.sistant to the President. Among other things, it is interesting to note here that on White House stationery, Killian is referred to as "Dr. Killian." He was not a doctor; he never received a PhD but rather a bachelor's degree in management. This fact was confirmed for me by MIT library staffer Jennifer Hirsch. "Mr. Killian always went out of his way to remind people he was not a doctor," I was told-apparently not so with the White House.

26. "I would be protected from congressional inquisition": Killian, Sputnik, Scientists and Eisenhower, 25. 25.

27. "Are you still there?" "Are you still there?": Admiral Parker of the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project; Defense Technical Information Center Staff, Defense's Nuclear Agency 19471997, Defense's Nuclear Agency 19471997, 140; Defense Threat Reduction Agency, 2002. 140; Defense Threat Reduction Agency, 2002.

Chapter Ten: Wizards of Science, Technology, and Diplomacy.

Interviews: Harry Martin, Louise Schalk, Dr. Wheelon, Colonel Slater, Frank Murray, Roger Andersen, Ken Collins 1. Martin had been at Area 51 since the very first days Martin had been at Area 51 since the very first days: Interviews with Harry Martin.

2. The generals would inevitably show up The generals would inevitably show up: Cla.s.sified Message, Secret 2135Z 14 May 62, To Director, Prity [sic] OXCART. "1. General Power, General Compton, Col Montoya and Col Geary [redacted], A-12... During the flight the visitors were shown [redacted]... Kelly Johnson flew back to Las Vegas with the group... General Power seemed very impressed with the aircraft." Decla.s.sified by CIA, August 2007.

3. "Lou, wake up!" "Lou, wake up!": Interview with Louise Schalk.

4. "The aircraft began wobbling" "The aircraft began wobbling": Johnson, History of the Oxcart Program, History of the Oxcart Program, 12. 12.

5. "What in h.e.l.l, Lou?" "What in h.e.l.l, Lou?": Rich, Skunk Works, Skunk Works, 219. 219.

6. Martin thought for sure the airplane was going to crash Martin thought for sure the airplane was going to crash: Interview with Harry Martin.

7. Rare film footage of the historic event Rare film footage of the historic event: CIA footage, T. D. Barnes's personal collection.

8. Bud Wheelon Bud Wheelon: Central Intelligence Agency, "Biographic Profile, Albert Dewell Wheelon," May 10, 1966, NARA, MRB, RG 263.

9. Howard and Jane Roman Howard and Jane Roman: Helms, A Look Over My Shoulder, A Look Over My Shoulder, 275. "When the CIA Counterintelligence Staff was established, Jim Angleton a.s.sumed responsibility for operational liaison with the FBI. Jane Roman, a veteran OSS X-2 officer, handled the daily meetings..."; interview with Dr. Wheelon. 275. "When the CIA Counterintelligence Staff was established, Jim Angleton a.s.sumed responsibility for operational liaison with the FBI. Jane Roman, a veteran OSS X-2 officer, handled the daily meetings..."; interview with Dr. Wheelon.

10. hand-picked by President Kennedy's science advisers hand-picked by President Kennedy's science advisers: Central Intelligence Agency, R. V. Jones Intelligence Award Ceremony Honoring Dr. Albert Wheelon, December 13, 1994.

11. "in this way, I became the new 'Mayor of Area 51'" "in this way, I became the new 'Mayor of Area 51'": Interview with Dr. Wheelon.

12. Agency had been a.n.a.lyzing reports Agency had been a.n.a.lyzing reports: McAuliffe, CIA Doc.u.ments on the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962, CIA Doc.u.ments on the Cuban Missile Crisis 1962, 131. 131.

13. including 1,700 Soviet military technicians including 1,700 Soviet military technicians: Ibid., 37.

14. jamming facilities against Cape Canaveral jamming facilities against Cape Canaveral: Ibid.

15. McCone left for his honeymoon in Paris McCone left for his honeymoon in Paris: Interview with Dr. Wheelon.

16. Not another Gary Powers incident Not another Gary Powers incident: This was a common theme among military planners all through the 1960s.

17. the CIA got presidential approval the CIA got presidential approval: Office of Special Activities DD/S&T Chronological History, 30 August 1966, Top Secret, Approved for release Jul 2001, 5. "5 October 1962, Last CIA Flight over Cuba (50 flown in all)."

18. pus.h.i.+ng for preemptive strikes pus.h.i.+ng for preemptive strikes: Brugioni, Eyeball to Eyeball, Eyeball to Eyeball, 265. 265.

19. Ledford had been asked by McCone Ledford had been asked by McCone: Interview with Dr. Wheelon.

20. General LeMay encouraged him to take the CIA liaison job General LeMay encouraged him to take the CIA liaison job: Richelson, Wizards of Langley, Wizards of Langley, 53. 53.

21. Ledford's plane crash, involving heroics Ledford's plane crash, involving heroics: Official Website of U.S. Air Force, biography of Brigadier General Jack C. Ledford, retired Oct. 1, 1970; died Nov. 16, 2007.

22. tried to treat Ledford with opiates tried to treat Ledford with opiates: This story was legendary among the men who worked under Ledford at Area 51 and is sourced from multiple interviews including with Colonel Slater and Frank Murray. A version of it can be read at the Arlington National Cemetery Web site. Ledford's backseater, Sergeant Harry C. Miller, died of his original wounds several hours after Ledford and the medic helped him out of the plane.

23. The chances were one in six, Ledford said The chances were one in six, Ledford said: Richelson, Wizards of Langley, Wizards of Langley, 53. 53.

24. Kennedy felt that if a CIA spy plane Kennedy felt that if a CIA spy plane: Interview with Dr. Wheelon.

25. Air Force pilot flying an Agency U-2 Air Force pilot flying an Agency U-2: Richelson, Wizards of Langley, Wizards of Langley, 54. 54.

26. Photographs showing nuclear missiles Photographs showing nuclear missiles: Brugioni, Eyeball to Eyeball, Eyeball to Eyeball, photographic inserts. photographic inserts.

Chapter Eleven: What Airplane?.

Interviews: Ken Collins, Don Donohue, Sam Pizzo, Frank Murray, Roger Andersen, Florence DeLuna, Frank Micalizzi, Harry Martin 1. Collins went by the code name Ken Colmar Collins went by the code name Ken Colmar: Interviews with Ken Collins, who had never revealed his code name before.

2. She made it as far as Athens She made it as far as Athens: Powers, Overflight, Overflight, 59. 59.