After the tannage is complete, leather is hung up to dry. In the case of heavy leather this drying must be very carefully carried out in order to obtain a product of satisfactory appearance and saleable qualities.

a.s.sociated with the drying are many mechanical operations (scouring and rolling) which a.s.sist very materially in imparting the desired qualities. After tanning, however, the quality of the final product is most strongly influenced by the amount of grease added in finishing.

Some grease is always used in finishing, partly because even sole leather requires some measure of pliability and partly because a coating of oil over the leather during drying prevents the loose tannin from being drawn to the surface of the leather by capillarity, thereby causing dark and uneven patches and a "cracky" grain. The added grease is also a contribution to the "weight" of the finished article--a primary consideration for heavy leather, which is usually sold by weight. The finishing processes, indeed, tend to be dominated by this consideration, and become a series of efforts to retain as much tannin and add as much grease as are consistent with the requirements of the cla.s.s of leather being manufactured. Sole leather does not contain more than about 2 per cent. grease, or its firmness is impaired. Belting leather, in which considerable pliability is needed, may contain about 9 per cent., whilst harness leather, which must be exceedingly tough and durable, may contain up to 13 per cent. of fatty matters. Upper leathers, which need to be soft and pliable as well as waterproof and durable, are very heavily "stuffed" and often contain up to 30-40 per cent. of grease. Sole leather is thus rather distinct from the rest, which are called "curried," "stuffed," or "dressed" leathers. The actual drying out before, after and between the various mechanical operations, each have an appropriate degree of wetness. In this country the drying is usually under the prevailing atmospheric conditions and is known as "weather drying." The goods are suspended by hooks or strings or by laying over poles in special sheds fitted with louvre boards by which the rate of drying can be roughly controlled. Weather drying is cheap, but exceedingly slow, and in unfavourable weather is very unreliable.

The goods, moreover, need constant attention to obtain an even result.

Steam pipes are usually laid along the shed floors, and are used in winter and damp weather to accelerate the drying, and also in the final shed stove to remove the last traces of moisture. Wet weather, however, will not stand a high temperature, and steam drying is better avoided when possible. Air-dried leather still contains about 14 per cent. of moisture. Many systems of shed ventilation have been suggested to hasten the drying and to secure a better control of the process. In one system a screw fan is fitted at one end of a shed (without louvre boards) and sucks air through the goods from an inlet at the other end. The air can be heated by a steam coil near the inlet. In another system a centrifugal fan blows air through an arrangement of pipes which distributes it to the drying sheds, and discharges it close to the floor by various branch pipes. The outlets are near the roof. A system of dampers permits hot air, warm air and the used wet air to be blended in the desired proportions. In America turret drying has been used. The sheds are vertically above one another and have latticed floors. Heated air is admitted at the bottom and rises through the goods up the building just as in a chimney. For many of the finishing operations it is important to obtain the leather in a uniformly half dry or "sammed"

condition. This may be done by careful drying, and wetting back the parts that have become too dry with tepid water or weak sumac liquor, and then leaving the goods "in pile" until of uniform humidity. It may also be done by "wetting back" leather which has been completely dried out. There are also "samming machines" which by means of rollers squeeze out the excess liquor. Sole leather is dried out and finished immediately after tanning, but dressing leather is often "rough dried"

out of tan liquors and wet back for finishing when required. Dressing leather is often treated in different factories; tanners selling it as rough leather and "curriers" finishing it.

Scouring is one of the first operations in finishing leather. The grain side is wet and worked with brushes and stones until the bloom and loose tannin are removed. This process aims at producing a good even colour and level surface, but is liable to cause a loss of weight. Dressing leather is often scoured on both grain and flesh, and weak soap or borax solutions are used to a.s.sist the process. In this operation hand labour has been now quite superseded by machine work. A great variety of machines have been devised. The mechanical working of leather takes place in various parts of finishing. These operations, known as "striking," "setting," "pinning," "jacking," may be carried out often by the same machine as used for scouring, but with a change of tool. The object of these operations is to get rid of wrinkles and creases, to produce softness, pliability and area, and to remove superfluous moisture, grease, dirt. The tools are of steel, bra.s.s, slate or vulcanite. Scouring is often effected by putting the goods into rotating drums together with extract and sumach. The bloom is removed by friction, the colour is improved by the sumach, whilst the extract keeps up the weight.

In finishing sole leather firmness is enhanced by "rolling." A bra.s.s roller pa.s.ses to and fro over the goods with the exertion of considerable pressure. The operation is carried out by machinery.

Shaving is an important operation in the case of many dressing leathers.

Its object is to produce a uniform thickness of the leather and an even surface on the flesh side. The sammed goods are laid over suitable beams and shaved with special sharp knives which possess a turned edge. This hand process, which demanded considerable skill, is fast becoming extinct, and machine shaving is already almost universal on account of its greater speed. The machines consist essentially of two rollers, one of which is smooth, whilst the other is a spiral knife-blade cylinder (cp. Section II.). The sammed goods are held in the hands and placed over the smooth roller, which is raised to the cutting roller by a foot treadle. A number of similar operations ("flatting," "whitening,"

"buffing") are carried out by a suitable change of tool. In all these operations good samming is important.

Splitting is another important operation on tanned leather. In this process the leather is cut parallel to its grain surface, thus yielding two pieces with the same area as the original, the "grain" and the "flesh split." It is essentially a machine operation, and is carried out by presenting the carefully sammed leather to a sharp knife-edge, towards which it must be constantly pressed. The "band knife" machine is the most popular arrangement. The knife is an endless belt, which continually revolves round two pulley wheels of equal size. In between these the knife is horizontal, and is then used for splitting. The sammed leather is pushed towards the blade by two feed rollers, and the grain pa.s.ses above the knife on to a small platform, whilst the flesh or "split" pa.s.ses below and falls to the ground. Emery grinders and thick felt cleaners in the lower part of the machine keep the knife in good condition. The adjustment of the machine is delicate and requires considerable experience. With care splits may be obtained down to 1/16"

thick, and sometimes as many as 6 or 7 splits are obtained from one hide.

Oiling is still usually done by hand, and cod oil is still preferred for many cla.s.ses of goods. Of recent years there has been a great extension of the use of sulphonated oils, which have the valuable property of forming an emulsion with water or tan liquor. With these materials it is easier to ensure the goods being completely covered with oil. The penetration of the oil into the leather is also quicker and more complete. These oils have often the disadvantage of leaving solid fats on the exterior of the leather, which gives it an ugly smeared appearance.

Stuffing the dressing leathers is carried out in a variety of ways and with a variety of materials. The old process of hand stuffing employs a mixture of tallow and cod oil called "dubbin." This is made by melting the ingredients together and allowing them to cool with constant stirring to a nearly h.o.m.ogeneous salve. The dubbin is brushed thickly on to the flesh side of the sammed leather, which is then hung up to dry.

As the moisture dries out the oils and soft fats penetrate the leather and leave the more solid fats on the outside. The proportions of tallow and oil are varied with the time of year and with the method of drying, for if the dubbin be too soft it will run off the leather, and if too hard will not penetrate it so well.

Drum stuffing is a more modern development in which a higher temperature is employed, about 140 F. The drum is heated up by steam or by hot air, and the sammed goods are then inserted and drummed for a few minutes until they are warmed. The drum is fitted with a heated funnel containing the melted grease, which is run in through the hollow axle.

After a half to three-quarters of an hour's drumming the grease is completely absorbed by the leather. The drumming is continued for a while until the goods have cooled. Whilst still warm they are "set out"

to remove creases and superfluous grease. Drum stuffing is not only quicker than hand stuffing, but also makes it possible to use the hard fats, and so make a leather which carries more grease without appearing greasy. Thus in drum stuffing, paraffin wax and wool fat are used, and their penetration a.s.sisted by small proportions of cod oil or degras. If the leather be too wet the grease is not absorbed, whilst if it be drier than usual the leather will take more grease, but the resulting colour is not so good. There is also another method of stuffing which originates from the Continent. It is known as "burning in" and involves the use of still higher temperatures (195 to 212 F.). Wet leather will, of course, not stand this temperature, so that it is first necessary to make the leather absolutely dry. This is effected by drying in stoves at temperatures up to 110-115 F. There are two ways in which the grease is applied. In one method the melted grease is poured by a ladle on to the flesh side and brushed over until evenly distributed. A second application of grease is made to the thicker parts. The hides are then put into warm water (120 F.) for about a quarter of an hour, and then drummed for half an hour. In the other method the goods are completely immersed in the melted fats for a few minutes in a steam-jacketer tank at a temperature of 195 F. After softening in water at 120 F. the goods are drummed. "Burning in" is used for the heavier dressing leathers such as belting and harness. It does not give good colour, but permits the employment of still more hard fats.

REFERENCES.

Procter, "Principles of Leather Manufacture," pp. 223, 378.

Bennett, "Manufacture of Leather," pp. 251-312.

Bennett, "Principles of Leather Stuffing," _Leather Trades Review_, 1911, 186.

SECTION V.--SOLE LEATHER

Leather for the soles of boots and shoes is a matter of essential interest to all, and forms one of the best appreciated applications of animal proteids to useful purposes. Methods for its manufacture are as numerous as the factories producing it, hence all that can be done is to describe broadly the general method which is typical of our time, to cla.s.sify the many varieties into types, and to indicate the recent changes and present tendencies.

Sole leather is mainly manufactured from b.u.t.t pelt, and the great aim is to produce a firm, thick, waterproof and smooth grained leather which will bend without cracking. It must have a light tan colour to be saleable, and contain as much weight as possible to be profitable.

The modern mixed tannage of "sole b.u.t.ts" or "scoured bends" generally utilizes ox-hides of the Scotch and English markets, though salted Continentals and South Americans are also employed. After the usual soaking a short and sharp liming is given. The special aim in liming sole hides is to obtain the maximum plumping effect with the minimum loss of hide substance. Both these achievements are necessary to obtain good weight. The limes should be kept as clean as possible, which is best obtained by putting clean hides into work. This reduces bacterial activity and loss of hide substance. The "shortness" of the process is attained by the use of sodium sulphide (from 2 to 16 ozs. per hide of sulphide crystals), by which depilation may be accomplished easily in about nine days. The amount of sulphide should be increased somewhat in the short-hair season and in cold weather. Some factories take up to about 12 days using less sulphide, whilst others will lime in about a week by using the larger quant.i.ties. The amount of lime used varies enormously, and is invariably in great excess of the actual requirements. "Probably 2-3 per cent. on the green weight of the hides is all that can be really utilized, the remainder being wasted."[5] This amounts to about 2-1/2 lbs. lime per hide, but in practice it is more frequent to find 7, 8, 9 or even 10 lbs. per hide being used. The excess is innocuous, owing to the limited solubility of lime. Some excess is desirable, to replace in the liquor the lime adsorbed by the goods in plumping, to a.s.sist bacterial activity, and also because in sharp lime liquors the undissolved portions do not remain so long in suspension. The use of sulphide and other alkalies does not "make it possible" to reduce the amount of lime used, it merely renders the excess more superfluous. The use of sulphide not only shortens the process, but also sharpens it, on account of the caustic soda produced by hydrolysis. Usually for sole leather, however, it hardly sharpens it sufficiently, and it is very common to add also caustic soda (or carbonate of soda) to the limes. About 2 ozs. caustic soda (or its equivalent in carbonate) is used per hide. The hides are limed generally by the three-pit system, giving about three days in each pit. They should be handled each day in the first pit (old lime) and once in the other pits.

[Footnote 5: Procter, "Principles of Leather Manufacture," p. 129.]

Unhairing and fleshing by hand labour is still common, in order to avoid great pressure on the plumped hide. Scudding should be very light, and in some yards is entirely omitted. Only the lime on the surface of the hide should be removed by deliming, and this immediately prior to the insertion of the b.u.t.ts into the tan liquor. This is to ensure good colour and yet keep the b.u.t.ts plump. Boric acid is the best for this purpose, using 10-15 lbs. per 100 b.u.t.ts. The goods are inserted (and preferably rocked) in a dilute solution for a few hours only. About the same quant.i.ty of commercial lactic acid may be subst.i.tuted for the boracic. This deliming can also be accomplished by adding the acid to the worst suspender in the tanyard.

To obtain firmness and plumping it is necessary that the early liquors in tanning should be more acid than for other leathers. With old methods of tanning one could trust to the natural sourness of the liquors to complete the deliming and replump the goods with acid. In such cases any deliming was also unnecessary. In the modern yard, however, we get "sweet" liquors coming down the yard, partly on account of the greater proportion of extract used and partly because the liquors themselves are not so old. Hence it is now practically always necessary to acidify artificially the tan liquors. This may be done by adding a few gallons of lactic, acetic, formic, or butyric acid to the handlers and suspenders, especially in the winter and spring. It is now increasingly common to place sole b.u.t.ts in a special acid bath after they have been in tan liquor for about a week. This bath is often made from sulphuric acid, and may be 1 or 2 or even 4 per cent. in strength.

The actual tanning of sole b.u.t.ts lasts three to four months, and just prior to the war the tannage consisted often of about one-third myrabs, one-third valonia, and one-third extract. The myrabs and valonia were leached together, and the extract added to the best leach to make layer liquors of the required strength. Some mimosa bark was generally used also, and now it is extensively employed to replace the valonia. The most widely preferred extract is chestnut, but quebracho, myrabs extract and mixtures have also a prominent place, and mimosa bark extract an increasing importance. It is recognized that this tannage is if anything too mellow, and that if only a smooth grain and plump b.u.t.t can be ensured in the first weeks of tanning, it is much better for sole leather to employ the most astringent tans possible and the sharpest liquors (_i.e._ liquors with a small relative proportion of soluble non-tannin matters). Hence there is the tendency in sole-leather tanning to employ fresh clear liquors for the b.u.t.ts and use up the more mellow liquors on the "offal" (shoulders and bellies).

Four types of sole b.u.t.t tannage will now be described, all of which ill.u.s.trate the methods employed in a modern mixed tannage.

=1.= The first type consists in a four-months tannage, in which the liquors are worked down the yard.

The b.u.t.ts pa.s.s first through the suspenders (20-40 Bkr.) in about a week, and are rocked in the first liquors. They next enter the handlers (40-55) rounds of eight pits, six floaters and two dusters. Myrabs, or a mixture with algarobilla is used as dusting material. The goods remain in this set for two weeks, and should then be struck through. The suspender handlers (55-65) are next entered, in which they remain up to three weeks in suspension, being shifted forward on alternate days.

The goods now enter the layers, of which four are given: first 70 for one week; second 75 for two weeks; third 80 for three weeks; and fourth 90 for a month. The goods thus take sixteen weeks to tan, of which ten weeks (62-1/2 per cent.) are in layers.

The system of working the liquors is expensive, and is only possible if the b.u.t.t liquors can be spent out by the offal. The best or fourth layer, 90, is made from the best leach liquor, 65, and extract (chestnut with some oakwood or mimosa bark). After use it becomes the second layer, 75. The third layer, 80, is also made from fresh leach liquor and extract (chestnut with some myrabs or mixed extract). After being used thus it is used for the first layer, 70. The used first and second layers are mixed together and used partly to form the belly layers, and partly to make a sharp liquor for the handlers (55-40) by diluting with 40 leach liquor and adding quebracho extract. The old handler liquor is run to the suspenders (40-20), and finally used for colouring off the offal in drum or paddle 18. The suspender handlers (65-55) are made from fresh leach liquor and chestnut extract. They are afterwards used to make shoulder layers. The course of the liquors is shown in the diagram below.

It will be seen that fresh leach liquor and fresh material are used to each set except the suspenders, which must have some mellowness to ensure plumping and smooth grain. Layer liquors are used twice only, and then (when only five weeks old) pa.s.s to the handlers. These are further sharpened by fresh leach liquor and fresh extract and dry materials.

The forward handlers are fresh liquors with fresh extract. This tannage is fairly typical of high-cla.s.s sole leather, in which the liquors are worked down the yard, but worked towards the offal, which thus receives liquors with relatively greater proportions of mellow tans and soluble non-tans.

----------Leach liquor------------------- | / | | V | | 4th layer, 90 | | | V | | V 3rd layer, 80 | | 2nd layer, 75 | | | V | | 1st layer, 70 | / | / | V V | (mixture)[-->bellies] | / V V V Suspender handlers-->(65-55)(shoulders) Handlers, 55-40 | V Suspenders [-->offal]

=2.= The second type consists in a tannage of about four months, in which the liquors are not worked down the b.u.t.t yard. In this method also there is an attempt to save much of the labour in handling, first by shortening the time in the handlers by one week (as compared with the above), and second by fusing the two progressive handler sets into two sets of equal strength, through which the goods pa.s.s more slowly and with less disturbance.

The goods go through the suspenders (10-25) in about a week, rocking in the early liquors, and then into large rounds of handlers (30-45) for one month. The handlers consist of floaters and several dusters, in which the b.u.t.ts are laid away with 1-3 cwt. myrabs. The goods next enter the layers, of the same strength as in Type 1, and in which they remain the same time. The total tannage is thus 15 weeks, of which 10 weeks (nearly 67 per cent.) are in layers.

The best or fourth layer is made up from leach liquor and extract, and is then used successively as a third, second and first layer, and then pa.s.ses to the offal layers. The handler liquor is made entirely from fresh leach liquor and quebracho extract, and is a sharp liquor of greater strength than its Bkr. strength would indicate. The old handler liquor is run to the b.u.t.t suspenders. The course is represented thus:--

Leach liquor / | / 4th layer, 90 / | / 3rd layer, 80 / | / 2nd layer, 75 / | / 1st layer, 70-->[offal layers]

V Handlers (45-30) | V Suspenders (25-10)

=3.= The third type consists of a short three-month's tannage in which the liquors are worked straight down the yard. To compensate for the short time it is necessary to have stronger layer liquors in which the goods spend a still greater proportion of their total time. The stronger liquors involve a greater proportion of extract, particularly of quebracho, which fact causes the whole of the liquors to be sharper than their Bkr. strength indicates, and justifies them being worked straight down the yard.

The goods go through suspenders (20-40) as usual one week, and then pa.s.s into suspender-handlers (40-60) for two weeks, and thence to the layers. In the first two of these (65 and 70) they are actually in suspension, a week in each liquor. They are then dusted down for ten to eleven days, first in 85 and then in a 95 liquor, and finally for a month in a liquor of 110. The total tannage is thus twelve weeks, of which nine weeks (75 per cent.) are in layers. There is considerably less handling than in Type 2, and it is more convenient, the goods being in suspension.

=4.= The fourth type is also a three-month's tannage. In this it is attempted to obtain even greater weight with still less labour. The layer liquors are kept much stronger by the more extensive use of extract, and this makes it impracticable as well as too costly to run these liquors down the yard. They are therefore repeatedly strengthened with extract and used again.

The goods go through suspenders (20-40) as usual one week, and then through a round of suspender-handlers (40-55) consisting of fresh sharp liquor from the leaches together with quebracho extract. They are in this set two weeks, and then are laid away. They receive three layers: first, 105 for 2 weeks; second, 110 for three weeks; and finally, 120 for a month. Of the twelve weeks, therefore, nine weeks (75 per cent.) are spent in layers. In this method the goods are immersed in 3 per cent. sulphuric acid after pa.s.sing through the suspenders.

There is possible, of course, a tremendous number of variants of the above types. The number of handler rounds is determined by the number of b.u.t.ts being dealt with. With a large number it is more easily possible to arrange for them to be in progressive strength as in Type 1. There are also many systems of working the layers, of which the most notable is to make the second or third layer from fresh leach liquor and extract, and strengthen it with extract for the succeeding layers. It is then used as a first layer and worked down the yard.

The bellies and shoulders often go through separate sets of liquors, but it is common to put them through suspenders, and even handlers together.

They receive, of course, a distinctly shorter tannage, and are often drummed with extract before laying away or after the first layer. By way of ill.u.s.tration, the course of the offal and their liquors may be given in the case of Type 1. The shoulders and bellies are coloured off in a paddle or drum with old b.u.t.t suspender liquor, which is then quite exhausted. They then pa.s.s through suspenders (18-40) together in 4-5 days, and go through a handler round (40-55) for 3 weeks, including one duster. The bellies are removed after 2 weeks, and given three layers (60, 70, 80) of a week each. They receive, therefore, nearly 6 weeks in all. The shoulders also have three layers (60, 65 and 80) of 2, 3 and 4 weeks respectively.

The course of the liquors is shown thus:--