_Implements._--The people of this age made great improvements in their weapons, tools, and ornaments. They consist of bronze celts, swords, hammers, knives, hair-pins, small rings, ear-rings, bracelets, fish-hooks, awls, spiral-wires, lance-heads, arrow-heads, b.u.t.tons, needles, various ornaments, saws, daggers, sickles, and double-pointed pins. There were also ornaments of gold. Only one implement, a winged celt, has been found, which bore an inscription.

_Arts._--Progress was made in the art of weaving. Soldering and the moulding of metal were practised; foundries were established, the remains of which have been discovered at Devaine and Walflinger in Switzerland; stone moulds were used, one of which, on trial, produced a hatchet exactly similar to those which have been collected. The moulds were usually made out of sand. The crucible used for the melting of the metal was made out of pottery which was placed over a hole in the earth filled with burning charcoal; when the metal was melted, it was poured into the mould. Pottery took new shapes and was adorned with various patterns. Gla.s.s, which has so long been ascribed to Phoenician origin, was invented in the bronze age, for gla.s.s beads, of a blue or green color, have been found in the tombs of this epoch.

_Agriculture._--The cereals attest to the tilling of the soil. The ground was prepared by the projecting branch of a stem of the tree, used as a plough. The grain was stored for winter use, and when required was crushed by being rubbed between two stones serving as a mortar.

_Fishing and Navigation._--There are no distinct traces of improvement beyond the past epoch, in fishing and navigation, unless it be in the improved hooks made of bronze.

_Burial._--The custom of burning the dead was almost universal in Denmark, and was more or less practised in other countries. The ashes and fragments of the bone were collected and placed either in or under an urn. When buried, the corpse was usually placed in a contracted position, but occasionally extended. With the dead were buried their implements and clothing. The body of the chief discovered in a tumulus in Jutland, where the clothing was found, was buried in a coffin nine and two-third feet long, over two feet in breadth, and covered by a movable lid. The body was in a good state of preservation, owing to the action on it of water strongly impregnated with iron. It was wrapped in the woollen cloak, and again wrapped in an ox's hide. Buried with it were the shawls, leggings, shirt, boots, and caps, two small boxes, a bronze razor, comb, a bronze sword in a wooden sheath, and a long woollen band. In other coffins have been found swords, knives, brooches, awls, tweezers, and b.u.t.tons, all of bronze. In a baby's coffin was found an amber bead, and a small bronze bracelet.

_Religious Belief._--Many crescents, made of stone and earthenware, have been found which are regarded, by some archaeologists, as religious emblems. Dr. Keller calls them "moon images," and has devoted a short chapter to their consideration.[77] On the other hand, Lubbock and Carl Vogt regard them as resting-places for the head at night.[78] They carefully arranged their long hair, and evidently sacrificed comfort for vanity. They carried a long pin with which to scratch the head. This kind of a pillow is still used by the Fuegeans and Abyssinians, who have their hair elaborately decorated; and in some cases this is never disturbed. If the people were worshippers the crescent is the only evidence from archaeology. No idols have ever been discovered. That the people were already worshippers may be learned from the traditions recorded in history.

CHAPTER XIII.

IRON EPOCH.

As the _Iron Epoch_ fairly establishes civilization, and belongs almost wholly to the historical epoch, it will be here briefly noticed, and then dismissed after giving a quotation from Dr. Keller. The bronze had not only prepared the way for the iron epoch, but also gave a great impulse to succeeding ages. The art of metallurgy a.s.sumed a new importance and gave new life to every movement that tended to the a.s.sistance of man. The works of bronze gave way to those of iron. A knife made of iron is represented in Fig. 18. Knives of this pattern were, however, made of bronze, and served for the same purpose. The workshops of this age were so numerous that four hundred of them have been discovered in one province. The potter's wheel was invented; money was introduced, and agriculture greatly nourished.

[Ill.u.s.tration: FIG. 18. A KNIFE OF THE IRON EPOCH.]

Some of the Swiss lake-dwellings of Neuchatel and Bienne belong to this epoch. Dr. Keller, in summing up some of his observations, has made use of the following language: "The phenomenon of the lake-dwellings, so important in the history of civilization, the time of their first establishment, their original design, their development, and their final extinction, in spite of many acc.u.mulated facts, is in many respects clouded in doubt.... It is certain from the very beginning of this peculiar mode of living to the latest period of its existence, while outward circ.u.mstances remained the same, a quiet advance to a better development of the conditions of life may be observed, in which there was neither retrogression nor any sudden advance by the intervention of foreign elements. The general diffusion of metals in a country which had none, is explained simply by the barter which existed throughout Europe in the very earliest ages. The question why the inhabitants of a lake-dwelling of the stone age abandoned their settlements, while those of another, not many hours' or many minutes' walk distant, remained quietly living on their platforms, is of no greater importance than the inquiry why, during the middle ages, so many localities have disappeared, the names and situations of which are known to us. The presence of objects of industry on the area of the lake-dwellings has nothing in it very surprising, if we consider what misfortunes villages of straw-covered huts were exposed to, in which not only the houses themselves, but even the platforms on which they stood, were formed of very combustible materials. It is possible, if we are to take Caesar's account literally, that when the Helvetii, whose arrival in the country is neither mentioned in history nor shown by archaeology, withdrew, the lake-dwellings then existing were, as a whole, burned down; but there can also be no doubt that some remained standing, or were rebuilt after the return of the population. Their continuing down to the Roman time is only astonishing to any one who imagines that at this time the whole population had gone over to the Roman manner of life, while the proof lies before him that the lower cla.s.s adhered to their own manners and customs till the entrance of the German races."[79]

CHAPTER XIV.

TRACES OF MAN IN AMERICA.

America furnishes a better field for the antiquary than the old world.

Her ancient remains are not so much injured by the decay of empires and the rude hand of war. Succeeding ages have not so much effaced these marks, and many of the remains still stand as left by the original occupants, save only the change and decay which time itself produces.

America will yet be discovered. It is true the landmarks are known; but these have not been investigated so diligently as the remains of man in Europe. The Boucher de Perthes and the Dr. Schmerling are yet to come.

Until they do, the history of primitive man in America must be surrounded with great uncertainty. Much labor has been given to the investigation of this subject, and many works written, all looking toward an early development which must sooner or later come.

In this chapter the aim will only be to point out some of these traces.

_Enumeration._--The implements from the gravel beds of Colorado and the skull from Calaveras county, California, have already been referred to (pp. 61, 62).

Near Osage Mission, Kansas, there was found a human skull imbedded in a solid rock, which was broken open by blasting. It was examined by Dr.

Weirley, who compared it with a modern skull, and found it resembled the latter in general shape, yet it was an inch and a quarter longer. Of this relic he says: "It belonged to a man of a large size, and was imbedded in conglomerate rock of the tertiary cla.s.s, and found several feet beneath the surface. Parts of the frontal, parietal, and occipital bones were carried away by the explosion. The piece of rock holding the remains weighs some forty or fifty pounds, with many impressions of marine sh.e.l.ls, and through it runs a vein of quartz, or within the cranium crystallized organic matter, and by the aid of a microscope presents a beautiful appearance." In shape the Neanderthal man comes nearest to it.[80]

In the Comstock lode (Nevada), at a depth of five hundred feet, Judge A.

W. Baldwin found a human skull of unusual and peculiar shape. It is very short from base to summit, and exceedingly broad between the ears. The skull is entire, with the exception of the facial bones. This skull has never been examined by a competent person.[81]

In the drift-clay, in the city of Toronto, at a depth of two feet from the surface, were discovered the bones and horn of a deer, amidst an acc.u.mulation of charcoal and ashes, and with them a rude stone chisel or hatchet.[82]

In the gravel of the gold-bearing quartz of the Grinell leads (Kansas), was found an imperfect flint knife at a depth of fourteen feet. Above the implement the gravel, composed of quartz and reddish clay, was ten feet thick, and above this was four feet of rich black soil. This implement was given to Dr. Daniel Wilson by Mr. P. A. Scott.[83]

Dr. d.i.c.keson found, in the yellow loam of the Mississippi at Natchez, a human pelvic bone along with the bones of the mastodon and megalonyx.

They were found at a depth of thirty feet from the surface, and the human bone had the same black color which characterized the others. Sir Charles Lyell calculated that it required sixty-seven thousand years to form the delta of the Mississippi, but admits, if the conclusions arrived at by the United States engineers be correct, in respect to the annual amount of sediment discharged at the delta, the growth would be reduced to thirty-three thousand five hundred years. Taking either of these estimates, the same would give the number of years which have elapsed since these bones were deposited.[84]

In an excavation made near New Orleans, at a depth of sixteen feet from the surface, beneath four cypress forests superimposed one upon the other, the workmen found a complete human skeleton, and some charcoal.

The cranium is similar to the aboriginal type of the Indian race. This discovery furnished the data from which Dr. Bennet Dowler a.s.signed to the human race an antiquity, in the delta of the Mississippi, of fifty-seven thousand years.[85]

Count Pourtalis found some fossil human remains, consisting of jaws, teeth, and some bones of the foot, in a calcareous conglomerate forming a part of the series of reefs of Florida. The whole series of reefs is of post-tertiary origin, and, according to Professor Aga.s.siz, has been one hundred and thirty-five thousand years in forming. If this calculation be correct, then these bones must have an antiquity of ten thousand years.[86]

Dr. Lund, a Danish naturalist, explored eight hundred caverns in Brazil, belonging to different epochs, and exhumed in them a great number of unknown animal species. In a calcareous cave, near the lake of Semidouro, he found the bones of not less than thirty persons of different ages, and showing a similar state of decomposition to that of the bones of animals with which they were a.s.sociated. From the discoveries there made, Lund was forced to the conclusion that man was cotemporaneous with the megatherium and the mylodon--animals belonging to the post-tertiary.[87]

The sh.e.l.l-heaps of America are coeval with those of Denmark. Those at Damariscotta, Maine, have been examined by Professor W. D. Gunning. He estimates that within, an area of one hundred rods in length, eighty in width there are piled one hundred million bushels of oyster sh.e.l.ls. One dome-shaped hillock is nearly one hundred feet in height. The only human relics found among the sh.e.l.ls are stone gouges, arrow-heads, bone needles, pottery, and copper knives. These sh.e.l.ls were probably deposited by but a few individuals at a time. When formed, the oyster was a native of that coast, but within the memory of man the oyster has not lived there.

_The Mound-Builders._--An ancient and unknown people of a certain degree of civilization have left remains of their greatness in the fortifications and mounds in the valleys of the Mississippi and its tributaries. These works extend over a great extent of territory. They are found in Western New York, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan, Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Texas, and along the Kansas, Platte, and other western rivers.

The people appear to have originated in Ohio. On the southern extremity the works gradually lose their distinctive character, and pa.s.s into the higher developed architecture of Mexico; and at the north, north-east, and north-west, the population seem to have been more limited and their works less perfectly developed. The people were preeminently given to agriculture; were not warlike, and only navigated the rivers along their settlements. The fertile valleys of the Scioto, two Miamis, Kanawaha, White, Wabash, Kentucky, c.u.mberland, and Tennessee rivers were densely populated, as indicated by the numerous works which diversify their surfaces.

The stone and bone implements from the mounds, in their shape differ but little from those of Europe. The hatchets and knives are not only made of flint but also of obsidian, and other hard stones. Copper was the chief metallic substance. Out of this they made various implements, and swords. It was obtained from the sh.o.r.es of Lake Superior, where they carried on extensive mining. In these mines have been found their implements, some of which are very large diorite hatchets, used as sledges for breaking off lumps of copper, and so heavy that it would require more than one man to wield them. The copper was not subjected to heat, but it was hammered cold into such a shape as was desired.

Some idea of the number of the mounds and fortresses may be given from the statement that in the State of Ohio alone there are from eleven thousand to twelve thousand of these works. The fortresses were used for the protection of the people against the predatory warfare of the hostile tribes, or even, it may be, against the incursions made by other Mound-Builders. In regard to the mounds, there has been much speculation, and some archaeologists divide them into sacrificial, sepulchral, temple, and symbolical.

_Sacrificial._--The sacrificial mounds are characterized by "their almost invariable occurrence within enclosures; their regular construction in uniform layers of gravel, earth, and sand, disposed alternately in strata conformable to the shape of the mound; and their covering a symmetrical altar of burned clay or stone, on which are deposited numerous relics, in all instances exhibiting traces, more or less abundant, of their having been exposed to the action of fire."[88]

Among the most remarkable are those found on the Scioto, at the place called Mound City situated on the western bank. The mounds are enclosed by a simple embankment, between three and four feet high. The area occupied is about thirteen acres, and includes twenty-four mounds. One of these is one hundred and forty feet in length, and the greatest breadth is sixty feet. In this mound occurred four successive altars, a bushel of fragments of spear-heads, over fifty quartz arrow-heads, and copper and other relics. The sacrificial deposits do not disclose a miscellaneous a.s.semblage of relics, for on one altar hundreds of sculptured pipes chiefly occur; on another, pottery, copper ornaments, stone implements; on others, calcined sh.e.l.ls, burned bones; and on others, no deposit has been noticed. The sacrificial mounds are found at Marietta and other localities.

All the investigations which have been made prove that the altars were not only used for a long period, but also had been repeatedly renewed.

_Sepulchral._--The sepulchral mounds are numbered by the thousands. They are simple earth-pyramids, sometimes elliptical or pear-shaped, and vary in height from six to eighty feet. Usually they contain but one skeleton, reduced almost to ashes, but occasionally in its ordinary condition and in a crouching position. By the side of them occur trinkets, and, in a few cases, weapons. These mounds were probably only raised over the body of a chief or some distinguished person.

_Temple._--The temple mounds are truncated pyramids, with paths or steps leading to the summit, and sometimes with terraces at different heights.

Among the most noted of these is that of Cahokia in Illinois. It is seven hundred feet long at its base, five hundred feet wide, and ninety feet high. Its level summit is several acres in extent.

_Symbolical._--The symbolical mounds consist of gigantic bas-reliefs formed on the surface of the ground, representing men, animals, and inanimate objects. In Wisconsin they exist in thousands, and among the devices are man, the lizard, turtle, elk, buffalo, bear, fox, otter, racc.o.o.n, frog, bird, fish, cross, crescent, angle, straight-line, war-club, tobacco-pipe, and other familiar implements or weapons.

In Dane county there is a remarkable group, consisting of six quadrupeds, six parallelograms, one circular tumulus, one human figure, and a small circle. The quadrupeds are from one hundred to one hundred and twenty feet long, and the figure of the man measured one hundred and twenty-five feet in length and nearly one hundred and forty feet from the end of one arm to the other. Near the village of Pewaukee, when first discovered there were two lizards and seven tortoises. One of the latter measured four hundred and seventy feet.

In Adams county, Ohio, is the figure of a vast serpent; its head occupies the summit of a hill and in its distended jaws is a part of an oval-shaped ma.s.s of earth one hundred and sixty feet long, eighty wide, and four feet high. The body of the serpent extends round the hill for about eight hundred feet, forming graceful coils and undulations. Near Granville, Licking county, Ohio, on the summit of a hill two hundred feet high, is the representation of an alligator. Its extreme length is two hundred and fifty feet, average height four feet; the head, shoulders, and rump are elevated in parts to a height of six feet; the paws are forty feet long, the ends being broader than the links, as if the spread of the toes were originally indicated. Upon the inner side of the effigy is a raised s.p.a.ce covered with stones which have been exposed to the action of fire; and from this leading to the top is a graded way ten feet in breadth. On examination it was discovered that the outline of the figure was composed of stones of considerable size, upon which the superstructure had been modelled in fine clay.

_Antiquity._--There are methods of determining the antiquity of these mounds. Mr. E. G. Squier has pointed out three facts which go to prove that they belong to a distant period. 1. None of these ancient works occur on the lowest formed of the river terraces, which mark the subsidence of the streams. As these works are raised on all the others, it follows that the lowest terrace has been formed since the works were erected. The streams generally form four terraces, and the period marked by the lowest must be the longest because the excavating power of such streams grows less as the channels grow deeper. 2. The skeletons of the Mound-Builders are found in a condition of extreme decay. Only one or two skeletons have been recovered in a condition suitable for intelligent examination. The circ.u.mstances attending their burial were unusually favorable for preserving them. The earth around them has invariably been found wonderfully compact and dry; and yet, when exhumed, they have been in a decomposed and crumbling condition. 3.

Their great age is shown by their relation to the primeval forests. As the Mound-Builders were a settled agricultural people, their enclosures and fields were cleared of trees, and remained so until deserted. When discovered by the Europeans these enclosures were covered by gigantic trees, some of them eight hundred years old. The trees which first made their appearance were not the regular forest trees. When the first trees that got possession of the soil had died away, they were supplanted, in many cases, by other kinds, till at last, after a great number of centuries, that remarkable diversity of species characteristic of North America would be established.[89]

Dr. Buchner a.s.signs to them an antiquity of from seven thousand to ten thousand years.[90]

Fort Shelby, in Orleans county, New York, was carefully examined by Frank H. Cushing, the archaeologist. The fort was found to be composed of two parallel circular walls, with a gateway in each. The gateway in the outer wall fronted a peat-bog, the sh.o.r.e of which was some ten feet distant. Within the enclosure he found small, flat, notched stones, used for sinking fishing-nets. Into the bog he sank a shaft to the depth of seven feet, not far from the sh.o.r.e. At the bottom of the shaft he found the sh.e.l.ls of living species of sh.e.l.l-fish. The natural surroundings show that this fort was built when the peat-bog was a lake. This is further confirmed by the fact that all ancient works are erected near a permanent supply of water. The nearest permanent supply of water is Oak Orchard Creek, one and one-half mile distant. The formation of this peat would require not less than four thousand years, and more probably twice that number.

The Mound-Builders must have remained a very long time. These works were formed gradually, and the population extended slowly toward the North.

Their corn-fields, by their raised condition, show many successive years of usage.

NOTE A.--In reference to the fossil human bones from Florida Count L. F. Pourtales says: "The human jaw and other bones, found in Florida by myself in 1848, were not in a coral formation, but in a fresh-water sandstone on the sh.o.r.e of Lake Monroe, a.s.sociated with fresh-water sh.e.l.ls of species still living in the lake, (_Paludina, Ampullaria, etc._) No date can be a.s.signed to the formation of that deposit, at least from present observation."--_American Naturalist_, vol. II., p. 443.