2. The Phrygian empire.--Almost all the kings were named Midas and Gordius; their succession cannot be accurately determined. After the death of the last, called Midas V., Phrygia became a province of the Lydian empire, about 560.

3. The Lydian empire.--The Lydians (Maeonians) were a branch of the Carian tribe. According to Herodotus, three dynasties ruled in Lydia; the Atyadae down to 1232; the Heraclidae down to 727; and the Mermnadae down to 557: the two first are almost wholly fabulous, and the proper history of Lydia may be said to commence with the last dynasty.

Kings: Gyges, down to 689. From this period followed almost uninterrupted wars with the Greek settlements on the seacoast.

Gyges takes Colophon. Ardys down to 640. He takes Priene. Under his reign, an irruption of the Cimmerians. Sadyattes down to 628.

Alyattes down to 571. Expulsion of the Cimmerians. Capture of Smyrna. Croesus down to 557. He takes Ephesus, and subjugates Asia Minor as far as the Halys. Under his reign, the first rise of a Lydian empire, which however is overthrown by Cyrus. Asia Minor becomes a province of the Persian empire.

_Contemporary_ with which, in Asia, were the Medic and Babylonian empires.--Among the Jews, the last period of the kingdom of Judah.--Among the Greeks, the yearly archons at Athens.--With the Romans, the kings.

V. _Phoenicia._

The Phoenicians may be regarded as one of the most remarkable nations of Asia during this period; yet we have no complete, or even connected history of this people. But though a few scattered fragments are all we possess, we may from these trace out a general outline.

The peculiar sources of Phoenician history.--How far Sanchoniathon deserves to be mentioned here?--Hebrew writers, particularly Ezekiel; Greek writers; Josephus--Eusebius, etc. and the fragments which he has preserved of Menander of Ephesus, and Dius, historians of Tyre.

MIGNOT, _Memoires sur les Pheniciens_; inserted in _Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscript._ t. x.x.xiv-xlii. A series of twenty-four papers.

The section concerning the Phoenicians in A. H. L. HEEREN'S _Researches on the Politics, etc._

1. Observations on the internal state of Phoenicia. It did not const.i.tute one state, or, at least, one single empire; but consisted of several, and their territories. Alliances, however, were naturally formed between them, and hence a kind of supremacy of the more powerful, particularly of Tyre.

2. But though Tyre stood at the head, and claimed a certain degree of superiority, each separate state still possessed its own particular government. In all of them we meet with kings, who appear to have possessed but a limited authority, as we always find magistrates a.s.sociated with them in power. Among a mercantile and colonizing people, it was impossible that absolute despotism should endure for any length of time. Of the separate states, Tyre is the only one of which we possess a series of kings; and even that series is not complete.

This line of kings, which we derive from Menander through Josephus, commences with Abical, the contemporary of David, about B. C. 1050. The most remarkable among them are: Hiram, the successor of Abical;--Ethbaal I. about 920;--Pygmalion, Dido's brother, about 900;--Ethbaal II. in whose reign Tyre was sacked by Nebuchadnezzar, 586.--Foundation of New Tyre--republican const.i.tution under suffetes: tributary kings under the Persian rule;--conquest of New Tyre by Alexander, 332. The flourishing period of Phoenicia in general, and of Tyre in particular, falls therefore between 1000-332.

_Contemporary_ in inner Asia: monarchies of the a.s.syrians, Medes, and the Babylonians. Jews: period of the kings after David.

Greeks: from Homer to Solon. Romans: period of their kings in the last two centuries.

3. During this period the Phoenicians spread themselves by the establishment of colonies; some of which, particularly Carthage, became as powerful as the mother states.

General ideas concerning colonization.--1. Colonies are absolutely necessary to every seafaring and commercial people, whenever their trade extends to distant countries. 2. They have likewise been established for the purpose of providing for the excessive increase of the poor. 3. And they have sometimes arisen from political commotion, when the malcontents, either from free will, or force, have forsaken their country, and sought new settlements in distant regions.

4. Geographical sketch of the Phoenician colonies. They possessed, at a very early period, most of the islands of the Archipelago; from which, however, they were subsequently expelled by the Greeks. The princ.i.p.al countries in which they had settlements were the south of Spain (Tartessus, Gades, Carteia); the north coast of Africa, west of the Lesser Syrtis (Utica, Carthage, Adrumetum); and the north-western coast of Sicily (Panormus, Lilybaeum). It is likewise highly probable that they formed settlements towards the east in the Persian gulf, on the islands of Tylos and Aradus (Bahrein).

5. This sketch of the Phoenician colonies will give us some idea of the extent of their sea trade and navigation; which, however, extended much farther than their colonies. Among them, as among other nations, commerce took its rise in piracy; even as late as the time of Homer, the Phoenicians appear to have been freebooters. The princ.i.p.al objects of their commerce were (_a_) the settlements in north Africa and Spain; the latter more particularly, on account of its rich silver mines. (_b_) Beyond the Pillars of Hercules, the west-coast of Africa; Britain and the Scilly islands, for the purpose of procuring tin, and, very probably, amber. (_c_) From Elath and Ezion-Gebar, ports situate at the northern extremity of the Arabian gulph, they undertook, in connection with the Jews, voyages to Ophir, that is to say, to the rich lands of the south, particularly Arabia Felix and Ethiopia. (_d_) From the Persian gulf, they extended their commerce to the western peninsula of India and the island of Ceylon. Finally, (_e_) they made several extensive voyages of discovery, among which, the most remarkable was the circ.u.mnavigation of Africa.

6. Of no less importance was the land trade, mostly carried on by caravans. The princ.i.p.al branches of it were: (_a_) The Arabian caravan trade for spices and incense, imported from Arabia Felix, Gerra, and the Persian gulf. (_b_) The trade through Palmyra with Babylon, which opened them an indirect communication by way of Persia, with lesser Bukharia and little Thibet, probably even with China itself. (_c_) The trade with Armenia and the neighbouring countries in slaves, horses, copper utensils, etc.

7. To all this must be added their own manufactures, particularly their stuffs and dyes; (the purple, made of the juice of a marine sh.e.l.lfish;) their manufactures of gla.s.s and toys, which, in their commerce with uncivilized nations, generally carried on by barter, were turned to good account. Many other important discoveries, among which the invention of letters holds the first rank, are attributed to the Phoenicians.

VI. _Syrians._

1. The inhabitants of Syria dwelt in cities as early as B. C. 2000, when Abraham wandered over their country. This country did not form one single state, but consisted of several cities, each of which had its separate territory, and its chief or king; of these cities, Damascus, Hamath, etc. are mentioned in the most remote antiquity.

2. The Syrians were, however, often subjected by foreign conquerors; and their country was certainly, at least in the time of David, a Jewish province. It shook off the yoke, however, in the time of Solomon; when Rezon, who had formerly been a slave, obtained possession of Damascus.

3. After this, there arose the kingdom of Damascus, which comprised the greatest portion of Syria, the kings in the other cities becoming tributary to Damascus. The boundaries of the empire, too, were extended, and particularly at the expense of the divided kingdoms of Judah and Israel.

The kings, whose names are taken from the books of Chronicles, were: Rezon, about 980. Benhadad I. about 900. Hazael, about 850.

Benhadad II. about 830. Rezin. Under this last, the kingdom of Damascus was overthrown by the a.s.syrian conqueror Tiglath-Pileser, about 740.

_Contemporary_ in Inner Asia: a.s.syrian kingdom. Jews: kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Greeks: settlement of the Asiatic colonies.--Lycurgus.

VII. _Jews._

The history of the Jewish people, begins with Abraham the father of their race; that of the Jewish state does not commence till after the conquest of Palestine. It is divided into three periods. I. History of the Jews, as a nomad horde, from Abraham till their settlement in Palestine, B. C. 2000-1500. II. History of the Jewish state as a federative republic under the high priests and judges, from B. C.

1500-1100. III. History of the Jewish state under a monarchical government, from B. C. 1100-600, first in one kingdom,--975; afterwards as two separate kingdoms, Israel and Judah, until the downfall of the latter, 588.

Sources of the Jewish history.--Their annals:--Books of Judges, Samuel, Chronicles, Kings. How those books were composed, and whether their authors may be considered as contemporary with the events they relate? How far the Hebrew poets, the prophets in particular, may be considered as historical authority?--JOSEPHUS, as an antiquarian in his _Archaeologia_, and as a contemporary historian in his _Historia Belli Romani_.

Unfortunately there is not at present any satisfactory treatise on the Jewish history previous to the Babylonian captivity; nor one written in an impartial spirit, without credulity or scepticism.

The work of BERRUYER, _Histoire du Peuple de Dieu, depuis son origine jusqu'a la Naissance de J. C._ Paris, 1742, 10 vols. 8vo.; and the continuation, _depuis la Naissance de J. C._ 10 vols.; and others of the same kind do not answer this description. RELANDI _Antiquit. Sacr. Heb._ The writings of J. D. MICHAELIS, particularly his # Remarks on the Translation of the Old Testament, and his # _Mosaic Law_; together with # HERDER, _On the Spirit of Hebrew Poesy_, furnish many excellent materials.

I. _Period of the nomad state from Abraham to the conquest of Palestine._--Under Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, nothing more at first than a single nomad family; which, however, during its sojourn in Lower Egypt, where, during four hundred and thirty, or, according to others, two hundred and fifty years, it roved about in subjection to the Egyptian Pharaohs,--increased to a nomad nation, divided into twelve tribes. The nation, however, becoming formidable from the great increase of its numbers, the Pharaohs, following the usual policy of the Egyptians, wished to compel the Jews to build and inhabit cities.

Unaccustomed to restraint, they fled from Egypt under the conduct of Moses; and conquered, under him and his successor Joshua, Palestine, the land of promise.

Moses and his legislation.--What he borrowed and what he did not borrow from the Egyptians?--The worship of Jehovah in the national sanctuary, and by national festivals, celebrated with ceremonies rigidly prescribed, the point of union for the whole nation, and the political bond which held the tribes together.--The caste of Levites, compared with the Egyptian caste of priests.

J. D. MICHAELIS, _Mosaic Law_. Gottingen, 1778, etc. 6 vols. 8vo.; translated into English by Dr. ALEXANDER SMITH. Lond. 1814, 4 vols. 8vo. The commentator frequently sees more than the lawgiver.

II. _Period of the federative republic._ From the occupation of Palestine to the establishment of monarchy, 1500-1100.

1. General character of this period as the heroic age of the nation, which, after the gradual adoption of fixed dwellings and agriculture, was engaged in constant feuds with its neighbours, the vagrant Arabs, the Philistines, and the Edomites. Impossibility of exterminating entirely the ancient inhabitants according to the intention of Moses.--Hence the worship of Jehovah was never the _only_ religion in the land.

2. Political organization. In consequence of the division of land, according to tribes, and their separation from one another, the government long remained patriarchal. Each tribe preserved its patriarch or elder, as in the nomad state. All, however, had, in the worship of Jehovah, one common bond, uniting them into one federate state.

Magistrates were likewise appointed in the cities, to whom scribes are conjoined out of the Levite caste.

3. The permanent union of the nation, and preservation of the Mosaic law, were likewise promoted by the distribution of the Levite caste into forty-eight separate towns, situated in various parts of the country, and by making the high priesthood hereditary in Aaron's family.

4. But when at the death of Joshua the people were left without a common ruler, the tie of religion became insufficient to hold them together; especially as the weaker tribes became jealous of the more powerful. At this time the high priests appear to have had but little political influence; and the national bond was only prevented from being dissolved by the dread of a foreign yoke.

5. The Jews were sometimes independent, at other times tributary. In seasons of oppression and distress heroes arose, jealous for the worship of Jehovah, to deliver them from bondage. They acted as chief magistrates and rulers of a part, or even the whole of the nation, and as champions of the worship of the true G.o.d. The judges, particularly Othniel, Deborah, and Sampson.--Concerning the marvellous in their history.

6. Reestablishment of the worship of Jehovah by Samuel. He becomes judge, and rules as Jehovah's minister.--His scheme of making the office of judge hereditary in his own family is defeated by the conduct of his sons. The nation demands a king, whom Samuel, as minister of Jehovah, is called upon to appoint. His crafty policy in the election, which he cannot impede. He chooses Saul, politically speaking, the most insignificant man of the nation; but the tallest and most stately. A formal const.i.tutional act, according to the Mosaic command, is drawn up and deposited in the national sanctuary.

Causes which led the nation to demand a king.--Earlier attempts made, particularly by _Abimelech_, to obtain regal power.