The following were the honours and privileges granted to Caesar by the senate. After the battle of Pharsalia, 48, he was nominated dictator for one year and consul for five years; and obtained the _potestas tribunicia_, as well as the right of making war and peace, the exclusive right of the committees, with the exception of the tribunes, and the possession of the provinces. The dictatorship was renewed to him, 47, for ten years, as well as the _praefectura morum_, and was at last, 145, conferred upon him for ever, with the t.i.tle of _imperator_.

Although Caesar thus became absolute master of the republic, it appears to have been done without laying aside the republican forms.

38. Conspiracy against Caesar, formed by Brutus and Ca.s.sius, and terminating in the death of Caesar. Men so exalted as were the chiefs of this plot, easily understand one another; and it was quite in accordance with their character not to meditate upon the consequences of their deed. Caesar's death was a great misfortune for Rome. Experience soon showed that the republic could not be reestablished thereby; and his life might probably have spared the state some of those calamities which now, by its change to a monarchy, became unavoidable.

We still want a discriminating life of Caesar, who in modern times has been as extravagantly praised as Alexander has been unjustly censured.

As generals and conquerors, both were equally great--and little; as a man, however, the Macedonian, in the brilliant period of his life, to which Caesar never attained, was superior; to the great political ideas which developed themselves in Alexander, we know of none corresponding in Caesar; who knew better than any how to attain dominion, but little of preserving it.

_Histoire de la Vie de Jules Caesar_, _par_ M. DE BURY, Paris, 1758, 2 vols. 8vo.

# _Life of C. Julius Caesar_, _by_ A. G. MEISSNER, _continued by_ J. Ch. L. Haken, 1811, 4 parts. At present the best.

_Caius Julius Caesar, from original sources_, _by_ PROFESSOR SoLTL. A short biography, judiciously executed.

39. Notwithstanding the amnesty at first declared, the funeral obsequies of Caesar soon showed, that peace was of all things the least desired by his generals, M. Antony and M. Lepidus, now become the head of his party; and the arrival of Caesar's nephew, C. Octavius (afterwards Caesar Octavia.n.u.s), whom he had adopted in his will, rendered affairs still more complicated, as every one strove for himself; Antony's particular object being to raise himself into Caesar's place. However earnestly they sought to gain the people, it was in fact the legions who decided, and the command of them depended, for the most part, upon the possession of the provinces. We cannot therefore wonder, that while they sought to revenge the murder of Caesar, this became the chief cause of the struggle, and in a few months led to a civil war.

At the time of Caesar's death, M. Antonius was actual consul, and Dolabella consul-elect; M. Lepidus _magister equitum_ (master of the horse); M. Brutus and Ca.s.sius, praetors (the first, _praetor urba.n.u.s_).

Caesar had given to the former the province of Macedonia, and to the latter that of Syria, which had been confirmed to them by the senate.

M. Lepidus had been nominated to Transalpine, and D. Brutus to Cisalpine Gaul. But soon after the murder of Caesar, Antony obtained, by a decree of the people, Macedonia for himself, and Syria for his colleague Dolabella, with whom he had formed a close connection; instead of which the senate decreed to Ca.s.sius Cyrene, and to Brutus, who now had the important charge of supplying Rome with provisions, Crete. But soon after (June 1, 44), Antony desired, by a new change, to obtain Cisalpine Gaul for himself, and Macedonia for his brother C.

Antony, both of which he procured from the people.

40. As M. Antony sought by force to establish himself in Cisalpine Gaul, and D. Brutus refused to give it up to him, and retired into Mutina, a short, indeed, but very b.l.o.o.d.y civil war arose, (_bellum mutinense_.) The eloquence of Cicero had caused Antony to be declared an enemy of the republic; and the two new consuls, Hirtius and Pansa, together with Caesar Octavia.n.u.s, were sent against him. The defeat of Antony compelled him to seek refuge beyond the Alps with Lepidus; but the two consuls being slain, Octavia.n.u.s at the head of his legions was too importunate to be refused the consulship, and soon convinced the defenceless senate, how impossible it was to reestablish the commonwealth by their powerless decrees. The employment, moreover, of the _magistratus suffecti_, which soon after arose, was in itself a sufficient proof that it was now no more than the shadow of what it had formerly been.

The Mutine war begins in December, 44, and closes with the defeat of Antony at Mutina, April 14, 43. Octavius obtains the consulate, Sept.

22.

41. Octavia.n.u.s, deserting the party of the senate, enters into a secret negotiation with Antony and Lepidus; the consequence of which is a meeting of the parties at Bononia, and the formation of a new triumvirate. They declare themselves the chiefs of the republic for five years, under the t.i.tle of _triumviri reipublicae const.i.tuendae_; and dividing the provinces among themselves according to their own pleasure, they make the destruction of the republican party their princ.i.p.al object. A new proscription in Rome itself, and a declaration of war against the murderers of Caesar, were the means by which they proposed to effect it.

The agreement of the triumvirate was concluded Nov. 27, 43, after which the march of the triumvirs upon Rome gives the signal for the ma.s.sacre of the proscribed, which soon extends all over Italy, and in which Cicero perishes, Dec. 7. The cause of this new proscription was not party hatred alone, but was as much, perhaps more, owing on the one hand to the want of money for carrying on the war they had undertaken, and on the other to a desire of satisfying the turbulent demands of the legions. Where is to be found a time so full of terror as this, when even tears were forbidden?

42. The civil war, now on the eve of breaking out, may be considered therefore as a war between the oligarchy and the defenders of the republic. The Roman world was, as it were, divided between the two; and although the former had possession of Italy, and the western provinces, that advantage seemed counterbalanced to the chiefs of the opposite party by the possession of the eastern countries, and the naval power of s.e.xtus Pompey, which seemed to a.s.sure them the dominion of the sea.

M. Brutus had taken possession of his province of Macedonia as early as the autumn of 44; while Ca.s.sius, on the contrary, had to contend for that of Syria with Dolabella, who by the murder of the proconsul Trebonius had possessed himself of Asia. Being, however, for this offence, declared an enemy by the senate, and shut up in Laodicea by Ca.s.sius, he killed himself, June 5, 43. From this time Brutus and Ca.s.sius were masters of all the eastern provinces, at whose expense they maintained their troops, though not without much oppression. S.

Pompey, after the victory of Munda, 45, having secreted himself in Spain, and afterwards become a chief of freebooters, had grown very powerful; when the senate, after Caesar's a.s.sa.s.sination, having made him commander of the sea-forces, he with them took possession of Spain, and, after the conclusion of the triumvirate, of Sicily, and then, very soon after, of Sardinia and Corsica. It was a great thing for the triumvirate, that C. Pompey did not know how to reap half the profit he might have done from his power and good fortune.

43. Macedonia became the theatre of the new civil war, and together with the goodness of their cause, superior talents, and greater power both by land and sea, seemed combined to ensure the victory to Brutus and Ca.s.sius. But in the decisive battle at Philippi, fortune played one of her most capricious tricks, and with the two chiefs fell the last supporters of the republic.

Double battle at Philippi towards the close of the year 42; voluntary death of Ca.s.sius after the first, and of Brutus after the second engagement.

PLUTARCHI _Vita Bruti_; from the narratives of eyewitnesses.

44. The history of the eleven years intervening between the battle of Philippi and that of Actium, is little more than an account of the quarrels of the oligarchy among themselves. The most subtle was, in the end, victorious; for M. Antony possessed all the sensuality of Caesar, without his genius: and the insignificant Lepidus soon fell a sacrifice to his own vanity and weakness. While Antony went into Asia to arrange the affairs of the eastern provinces, and from thence with Cleopatra to Alexandria, Octavia.n.u.s returned to Rome. But the famine which then reigned in that city through Pompey's blockade of the seacoast; the misery spread throughout Italy by the wresting of patrimonial lands from the proprietors to distribute among the veterans; and the insatiable covetousness of the latter rendered his situation as dangerous now as it had been before the war. Besides all this, the hatred of the enraged consort of Antony, who had entered into an alliance with her brother-in-law, the consul L. Antony, brought on, towards the end of the year, a civil war, which ended with the surrender and burning of Perusium, in which L. Antony had shut himself up, and which was already much weakened by famine.

The _bellum Perusinum_ lasted from the end of the year 41 till April, 40.

45. This war, however, had nearly led to one still greater; for M.

Antony, as the enemy of Octavia.n.u.s, had come to Italy in order to a.s.sist his brother, and with the intention of forming an alliance with S.

Pompey against the former. But fortunately for the world, not only was harmony restored between the triumvirs, but on account of the great famine which prevailed at Rome, a peace was also concluded with Pompey, although it lasted but a very short time.

The princ.i.p.al object of the peace between the triumvirs was a new division of the provinces, by which the city of Scodra in Illyria was fixed upon as the boundary. Antony obtained all the eastern provinces; Octavia.n.u.s all the western; and Lepidus Africa. Italy remained in common to them all. The marriage of Antony with Octavia, Fulvia being dead, was intended to cement this agreement. In the peace concluded with S. Pompey at Misenum, he obtained the islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, and the promise of Achaia.

46. Pompey, however, was not long in finding that an alliance between him and the triumvirs would only end in his own destruction; and the war which he soon commenced, and which Octavia.n.u.s could not bring to a close but with the a.s.sistance of Agrippa, was of so much the more importance, as it not only decided the fate of Pompey, but by leading to dissensions, and the expulsion of Lepidus, reduced the triumvirate to a duumvirate.

After a doubtful engagement at sea, 38, and the formation of a new fleet, Pompey was attacked on all sides at the same time; Lepidus coming from Africa, and Antony sending also some ships. Final overthrow of Pompey, who flies to Asia and there perishes.--Lepidus wishing to take possession of Sicily, Octavia.n.u.s gains over his troops, and obliges him to retire from the triumvirate.

47. The foreign wars in which Octavia.n.u.s as well as Antony were engaged in the following years, prevented for some time their mutual jealousy from coming to an open rupture. Octavia.n.u.s, to tame his unruly legions, employed them with some success against the nations of Dalmatia and Pannonia; whilst Antony undertook an expedition against the powerful Parthians and their neighbours. But in offending Rome by his conduct in these wars, he only armed his opponent against himself; and his formal separation from Octavia, loosened the only tie which had hitherto held together the two masters of the world.

After his first stay in Alexandria, 41, Antony returned to Italy, 40, and then, having made peace with Octavia.n.u.s, he carried his new wife Octavia with him into Greece, where he remained till the year 37.

Although his lieutenant Ventidius had fought with success against the Parthians, who had invaded Syria (see above, p. 302.), Antony determined to undertake an expedition against them himself, 36. But although in alliance with Artavasdes king of Armenia (whom he soon after accused of treachery), in seeking to effect an entrance into Parthia, by pa.s.sing through Armenia and Media, a different route from that taken by Cra.s.sus, he was very nearly meeting with the same fate, and the expedition completely failed. He then revenged himself upon Artavasdes, who fell into his hands in a fresh expedition which he made, 34, and deprived him of his kingdom. After his triumphal entrance into Alexandria, he made a grant of this as well as other countries to Cleopatra and her children. (See above, p. 267.) In 33, he intended to renew his expedition against the Parthians, in alliance with the king of Media; but having, at the instigation of Cleopatra, ordered Octavia to return home, when she had already come as far as Athens on her way to meet him, Octavia.n.u.s and Antony reciprocally accused each other before the senate, and war was declared at Rome, though only against Cleopatra.

48. Greece became again the theatre of war; and although the forces of Antony were most considerable, yet Octavia.n.u.s had the advantage of having, at least in appearance, the better cause. The naval victory of Actium decided for Octavia.n.u.s, who could scarcely believe it, till he found that Antony had forsaken his fleet and army, the latter of which surrendered without striking a blow. The capture of Egypt followed, (see above, p. 267.) and that country was reduced to a Roman province; the death of Antony and Cleopatra ended the war, and left Octavia.n.u.s absolute master of the republic.

The history of the last days of Antony, princ.i.p.ally after his decline, having been written under the rule of his enemies, must be received with that mistrust which all such histories require. It has furnished abundant matter for the retailers of anecdote. The history of Cleopatra rests partly on the accounts of her physician Olympus, of which Plutarch made use.

FOURTH PERIOD.

HISTORY OF THE ROMAN STATE AS A MONARCHY TO THE OVERTHROW OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. B. C. 30.-A. C. 476.

_Geographical outline. View of the Roman empire and provinces, and other countries connected with it by war or commerce._

The ordinary boundaries of the Roman empire, which, however, it sometimes exceeded, were in Europe the two great rivers of the Rhine and Danube; in Asia, the Euphrates and the sandy desert of Syria; in Africa likewise, the sandy regions. It thus included the fairest portions of the earth, surrounding the Mediterranean sea.

EUROPEAN COUNTRIES: I. Spain (Hispania). Boundaries: on the east the Pyrenees, on the south, north, and west, the sea. Princ.i.p.al rivers: the Minius (Minho), Durius (Douro), Tagus (Tejo), Anas (Guadiana), Baetis (Guadalquiver), which flow into the Atlantic; and the Iberus (Ebro), which falls into the Mediterranean. Mountains: besides the Pyrenees, the Idubeda along the Iberus, Orospeda (Sierra Morena). Divided into three provinces. 1. Lusitania: northern boundary the Durius, southern, the Anas. Princ.i.p.al tribes: Lusitani, t.u.r.detani. Princ.i.p.al town: Augusta Emerita. 2. Baetica: boundaries on the north and west the Anas, on the east the mountains of Orospeda. Princ.i.p.al tribes: t.u.r.duli, Bastuli.

Princ.i.p.al towns: Corduba (Cordova), Hispalis (Seville), Gades (Cadiz), Munda. 3. Tarraconensis, all the remainder of Spain. Princ.i.p.al tribes: Callaeci, Astures, Cantabri, Vascones, in the north; Celtiberi, Carpetani, Ilergetes, in the interior; Indigetes, Cosetani, etc. on the Mediterranean. Chief towns: Tarraco (Tarragona), Cartago Nova (Carthagena), Toletum (Toledo), Ilerda (Lerida); Saguntum and Numantia (Soria) were already destroyed. The Balearic isles, Major (Majorca), and Minor (Minorca), were considered as belonging to Spain.

II. Transalpine Gaul. Boundaries: on the west the Pyrenees; on the east the Rhine, and a line drawn from its source to the little river Varus, together with that river itself; on the north and south the sea.

Princ.i.p.al rivers: the Garumna (Garonne), Liger (Loire), Sequana (Seine), and Scaldis (Scheldt), which empty themselves into the ocean; the Rhoda.n.u.s (Rhone), which is increased by the Arar (Saone), and falls into the Mediterranean; and the Mosella (Moselle) and Mosa (Meuse), which flow into the Rhine. Mountains: besides the Alps, the Jura, Vogesus (Vosge), and Cebenna (Cevennes). Divided into four provinces. 1.

Gallia Narbonensis, or Braccata. Boundaries: on the west the Pyrenees, on the east the Varus, on the north the Cevennian mountains. Princ.i.p.al tribes: Allobroges, Volcae, Calyes. Princ.i.p.al towns: Narbo (Narbonne), Tolosa (Toulouse), Nemausus (Nimes), Ma.s.silia (Ma.r.s.eilles), Vienna. 2.

Gallia Lugdunensis, or Celtica. Boundaries: to the south and west the Liger (Loire), to the north the Sequana, to the east the Arar. Princ.i.p.al tribes: aedui, Lingones, Parisii, Cenomani, etc. all of Celtic origin.

Princ.i.p.al towns: Lugdunum (Lyons), Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris), Alesia (Alise). 3. Gallia Aquitanica. Boundaries: the Pyrenees on the south, the Liger on the north and east. Princ.i.p.al tribes: Aquitani (of Iberian origin), Pictones, Averni, etc. of Celtic descent. Princ.i.p.al towns: Climberis, Burdegala (Bourdeaux). 4. Gallia Belgica. Boundaries: on the north and east the Rhine, on the west the Arar, on the south the Rhoda.n.u.s as far as Lugdunum, so that it comprised at first the countries bordering on the Rhine and Helvetia. The latter, however, were afterwards separated from it under the names of Germania Inferior and Superior. Princ.i.p.al tribes: Nervii, Bellovaci, etc. in the north, of Belgic origin; Treviri, Ubii, of German origin; Sequani, Helvetii, in the interior, of Celtic origin. Princ.i.p.al towns: Vesentio (Besancon), Verodunum (Verdun), etc. Along the Rhine in Germania Inferior: Colonia Agrippina (Cologne). In Germania Superior: Mogontiac.u.m (Mayence, or Mentz), and Argentoratum (Strasburg).

III. Gallia Cisalpina, or Togata (Lombardy, see above, p. 315). But as from the time of Caesar the inhabitants enjoyed all the privileges of Roman citizens, it may be reckoned as forming part of Italy.

IV. Sicilia; divided into Syracuse and Lilybaeum.

V. Sardinia and Corsica, see above, p. 320.

VI. The Insulae Britannicae (British islands); but of these, only England and the southern part of Scotland were reduced into a Roman province in the time of Nero, under the name of Britannia Romana. Princ.i.p.al rivers: Tamesis (Thames) and Sabrina (Severn). Cities: Eborac.u.m (York) in the north, Londinum (London) in the south. Into Scotland, Britannia Barbaria, or Caledonia, the Romans often penetrated, but without being ably completely to conquer it; and as for Hibernia, Ierne (Ireland), it was visited by Roman merchants, but never by Roman legions.

VII. The countries south of the Danube, which were subdued under Augustus and formed into the following provinces: 1. Vindelicia.

Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the east the aenus (Inn), on the west Helvetia, on the south Rhaetia. Princ.i.p.al tribes: Vindelici, Brigantii, etc. Princ.i.p.al towns: Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), Brigantia (Bregenz). 2. Rhaetia. Boundaries: on the north Vindelicia, on the east the Inn and the Salza, on the south the chain of the Alps from Lacus Verba.n.u.s (Lago Maggiore) to Belinzona, on the west Helvetia.

Princ.i.p.al tribe: Rhaeti. Princ.i.p.al towns: Curia (Chur), Veldidena (Wilden), Tridentum (Trent). 3. Noric.u.m. Boundaries: on the north the Danube, on the west the aenus, on the east the mountain Cetius (Kahlenberg), and on the south the Julian Alps and the Savus (Save).