Abbott, McGee, and the Paleolithic Wars: Abbott 1892a ("The stones are inspected," 345); 1892b ("scientific men of Washington," 270); 1883a ("high degree," 303); 1883b ("more 'knowing,'" 327); 1884 ("neither among," 253); Meltzer 2003; 1994:1112; 1993:4150; Cultural Resource Group 1996.

Hrdlicka's life work: Meltzer 1994:1215; 1993:54 ("respectable antiquity"); Montagu 1944; Loring and Prokopec 1994:2642.

"favorable cave": Quoted in Deuel 1967:486.

Folsom: Meltzer 1994:1516; 1993:5054; Roberts 1935:15; Kreck 1999.

Brown's announcement: Anon. 1928; Chamberlin 1928.

Whiteman: Anon. 2003; McAlavy 2003; Cotter and Boldurian 1999:110.

"driving mania": Eiseley 1975:99.

Howard at Clovis: Cotter and Boldurian 1999:1120 ("EXTENSIVE BONE," 11; "One greenhorn," 14; 130F, 15); Anon. 1932; Howard 1935 (I thank Robert Crease for helping me obtain this article).

Discovery of Clovis culture: Cotter 1937; Roberts 1937.

"So far": Hrdlicka 1937:104. Other skeptics were less careful. Writing in 1933, Walter Hough, of the U.S. National Museum, flatly claimed that "archaeologists now agree that there are no American paleolithic implements" (Hough 1933:757).

Lack of skeletons: Interview, Petersen; Steele and Powell 2002 (ten skeletons); Preston 1997:72 (interview with Owsley).

More than eighty Clovis and Folsom sites: Hannah Wormington lists ninety-six sites in the 1957 edition of her well-regarded Ancient Man in North America. But she describes some as small and uncertain, so I have hedged and said "more than eighty" (Wormington 1957). Grayson and Meltzer (2002) tally seventy-six paleo-Indian sites in the continental United States.

Cosmic-ray race: Crease and Mann 1996:Chap. 10.

Detection of organic C14 and halflife: Anderson et al. 1947a, 1947b; Engelkemeier et al. 1949.

First radiocarbon dates: Arnold and Libby 1949 ("seen to be," 680); Marlowe 1999.

"You read books": Libby 1991:600.

UA C14 lab and Haynes's background: Author's interview, Haynes; Feldman 1998.

Consistency of C14 dates: Haynes 1964.

13,500 and 12,900 years ago: I use the calibrations in Stuiver et al. 1998 (online at http://depts.washington.edu/qil/datasets/intcal98_14c.txt.). These calibrations are essentially applied to Clovis and Folsom in Fiedel 1999b:102. They have been attacked as based on unreliable data (Roosevelt, Douglas, and Brown 2002; Roosevelt 1997).

Beringia: For a general physical description, see Fiedel 1992:4647. Although now a little dated, Fiedel's book remains one of the best expositions of the basic issues.

Beringia insects: Elias 2001; Elias et al. 1996; Alfimov and Berman 2001; Colinvaux 1996.

Temperature rise: Alley 2000.

Ice-free corridor and 1950s investigations: E.g., Elson 1957.

"ice-free" and "700 years": Haynes 1964:1412. The potential relevance of the ice-free corridor was first described in Johnston 1972:2225, 4445. I am grateful to Josh d'Aluisio-Guerreri for helping me obtain this book.

Pleistocene bestiary: Anderson 1984; Kurten and Anderson 1980.

11,500 and 10,900 B.C.: Corrected radiocarbon dates from unpublished data provided to the author by Stuart Fiedel.

"zoologically impoverished": Wallace 1962 (vol. 1):14950.

Martin's overkill thesis: Martin 1984, 1973 ("thoroughly superior predator," "swift extermination," 972), 1967.

Other extinctions: Wilson 1992:24453.

"Paradigmatic image": Fiedel 1992:6384. The image is summed in Easton 1992 ("stout-hearted," 31).

Northwest Coast salmon wars: Wilkinson 2000. The treaty language at issue ("right of taking") is in Article 3, http://www.nwifc.wa.gov/tribes/treaties/tmedcreek.asp.

Hrdlicka in Larsen Bay: Denny's story can be augmented with the essays in Bray and Killion eds. 1994. Larsen Bay was not an anomaly. In 1902 Hrdlicka visited Sonora, Mexico, where Yaqui Indians were fighting the Mexican army. On a battlefield Hrdlicka found sixty-four fresh Yaqui corpses-men, women, and children. He lopped off their heads and shipped them to the Smithsonian (Hrdlicka 1904:6566).

Fifty shot down: Cited in Meltzer 1995:22. "The shelf-life of pre-Clovis claims seems little more than a decade," Meltzer wrote (ibid.).

"Clovis police," new Hrdlicka: Author's interviews, Meltzer, Haynes, Thomas Dillehay; Pringle 1999 (police); Alsoszatai-Petheo 1986:18 (new Hrdlicka); Meltzer 1989:47879. Clovis-firsters were attacked as the "Clovis Mafia" (Koppel 2003:14750). Fiedel (2000:4243) marshals evidence against the charges.

Landmark article: Greenberg, Turner, and Zegura 1986 ("the three," 479; "we are dealing," "28 key," "dental clusters," 480; "widely held," 484; "tripartite division," 487).

Languages of California: Mithun 1997 (fifteen families); Kroeber 1903 (five families).

180 language families: This rough figure for the linguistic state of the art in 1986 is created by adding together two then-recent tallies: Campbell and Mithun 1979 (62 families in North America) and Loukokta 1968 (118 in South and Central America).

Critiques of three-migrations paper: Campbell 1986 ("Neither," "should be," 488); Morrell 1990b ("zero"). See also, Campbell 1988; Laughlin 1986.

Geneticists pursued the question: Reviewed in Merriwether 2002.

Mitochondrial DNA indicates multiple migrations: Schurr et al. 1990; Horai et al. 1993.

Wallace and Neel timing estimate: Torroni et al. 1994.

Haplogroup A study: Bonalto and Bolzano 1997.

Size of founding groups: Schurr et al. 1990 (little mtDNA diversity, small group); Ward et al. 1991 (much diversity, big group).

Diverse possible origins: Merriwether et al. 1996 (Mongolia); Karafet et al. 1999 (Lake Baikal); Torroni et al. 1993 (east Asia); Lell 2002 (southern middle Siberia and Sea of Okhkotsk, in two major migrations).

"only one thing": Cann 2001:1746.

Monte Verde: Meltzer 1997; Dillehay ed. 198997 (summary of dig history, vol. 2:124). See also Dillehay 2001; Gore 1997; Wilford 1998b, 1997b.

Dates: Dillehay ed. 198997 (vol. 1):1819, 13345, esp. Table 6.1. Dillehay did not use calibrated radiocarbon dates; I use the calibration in Stuiver et al. 1998. Fiedel says the likely occupation date is 13,50014,100 years ago, if the data are correct (Fiedel 2000:50).

Hostility: Interviews, Crawford, Dillehay, Fiedel, Meltzer; Morrell 1990a:1.

Site visit to Monte Verde: Meltzer 1997; Adovasio and Page 2003:Chap. 9 (according to Meltzer, an accurate account [interview, Meltzer]); Gibbons 1997; Wilford 1997b ("ball game"). See also, Haynes 1999.

Fiedel's critique: Author's interviews, Fiedel; Fiedel 1999a ("virtually every," 1); Pringle 1999. See also, in general, Haynes 2003.

Haynes's misgivings: Haynes 1999 ("further testing").

Corridor critics: Levson and Rutter 1996; Burns 1996; Catto 1996; Jackson, Phillips, and Little 1999.

Lack of evidence in corridor: Driver 2001.

Critique of overkill: Grayson and Meltzer 2003 ("lives on," 590).

Clovis-firsters in minority: Roosevelt, Douglas, and Brown 2002 ("[T]he tide of public and scholarly opinion has definitely turned against Clovis as the earliest culture," 159); Lynch 2001 ("Some of our," 39; "blow the whistle," "political correctness," 41).

Three other pre-Clovis sites: Meadowcroft Rockshelter, in Pennsylvania, excavated mainly by James Adovasio; Cactus Hill, in Virginia, excavated by Joseph McAvoy; and Topper, in South Carolina, excavated by Allan Goodyear. See Adovasio and Page 2003.

Kennewick Man: Chatters 2001; Thomas 2001. The European connection links to Smithsonian archaeologist Dennis Stanford's idea that the Clovis culture descended from the Solutrean culture in Pleistocene Era France and Spain. Because Solutrean spear points resemble Clovis points, Stanford has speculated that they wandered across a northern arch of ice from Ireland to Greenland to northeast Canada, in an Atlantic version of the passage through Beringia. Stanford's Solutrean proposal was never published in scholarly journals, though it was adumbrated in Newsweek and the New Yorker. Specialists in Solutrean culture have not greeted these ideas with equal warmth (Stanford and Bradley 2002; Straus 2000; see also, Preston 1997; Begley and Murr 1999).

Baja skulls: Gonzalez-Jose et al. 2003; Dillehay 2003.

Australians into Brazil: Mattos 1939:10507.

Fladmark and coastal route: Fladmark 1979 (see references therein to earlier papers); Mason 1894 (early proposal); Easton 1992; Koppel 2003:6874; Powledge 1999; Hall 1999.

"Even primitive": Quoted in Chandler 2002.

(Re)settlement of Europe: Tolan-Smith 1998; Rozoy 1998. Before the Ice Age, northern Europe was populated, but there was no cultural continuity between the earlier and later inhabitants.

6 / Cotton (or Anchovies) and Maize "weft-twining": My thanks to Nobuko Kajitani and Masa Kinoshita for helping me with textile terminology.

Huaricanga dig: Author's interviews, Haas, Creamer, Ruiz, Gerbert Asencios, Dan Corkill, Luis Huaman, Kit Nelson.

Discovery of Norte Chico: The ruins were first written up by Max Uhle (18561944), a German researcher who is often called the "father of South American archaeology" (Uhle 1925). For Uhle's life and work, see Menzel 1977; Rowe 1954.

Among the world's biggest buildings: Huaricanga was built before the Egyptian pyramids, at a time when the only other structures that could be called monumental were in the city-states of Sumer. But at the time even these were smaller than the Huaricanga pyramid, so far as archaeologists can tell. The other main Eurasian culture centers-the Indus Valley, the Nile Delta, and the Shang homeland in China-did not even have cities then. Later the ziggurats of Mesopotamia and the pyramids of Egypt surpassed the Peruvian temples in size.

McNeill book: McNeill 1967.

High-school textbook: Stearns 1987 ("four initial centers," 16; Indian history, 20312). It was better than some other histories. A World History, by Mazour and People, gave the Americas just five pages (28186). R. J. Unstead's History of the World devoted three and a half pages to Indians: one and a half in the chapter "Other Cultures," and two pages in the chapter "Europeans in America" (Unstead 1983:5859, 20002).

Maize as most important crop: The 2001 maize harvest was 609 million metric tons, whereas rice and wheat were 592 million mT and 582 million mT respectively. Statistics from the FAO agricultural database are online at http://apps.fao.org/default.htm.

Three-fifths of the crops: Weatherford 1988:204.

Olmec as founder of Peruvian societies: This idea was common in the 1920s and 1930s (Wells 1920 [vol. 2]:18990). Later it fell out of favor, though it continued to be mooted until at least the 1960s (Coe 1962).

Sumer as world's oldest city: Some densely populated settlements were older, notably catalhoyuk, in central Turkey, and 'Ain Ghazal, in Jordan. But archaeologists believe that these were not true cities, because they show little evidence of public architecture, strong social hierarchy, and division of labor (Balter 1998; Simmons et al. 1988).

Eurasian trade in ideas: Examples lifted from Teresi 2002.

Pan-American Highway: The roadless gap in Panama and Colombia, once quite large, has shrunk to about fifty miles. Still, the road is so bad that the Lonely Planet guidebook describes the Pan-American Highway as "more of a concept than an actual route."

Atacama as model for Mars: Navallo-Gonzalez et al. 2003.

Pizarro's pilot's advice: Quoted in Thomson 2003:139.

Possible Paleo-Indian routes to coast: Arriaza 2001.

Two Science reports: Sandweiss et al. 1998; Keefer et al. 1998; deFrance et al. 2001. See also, Pringle 1998b; Wilford 1998a.

Different early adaptations: A fine summary is provided in Moseley 2001:91100.

First finding of mummies: Max Uhle found the same mummies but didn't further excavate there (Uhle 1917). I am grateful to the librarians at Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru who hunted down this article for me.

Chinchorro diet: Aufderheide and Allison 1995. My thanks to Joshua D'Aluisio-Guerreri for helping me obtain this article.

Chinchorro mummies: Arriaza 1995 (1983 find, chap. 2); Allison 1985; Pringle 1998a.

Anemia in child mummies: Focacci and Chacon 1989.

Tapeworm eggs: Reinhard and Urban 2003.

Import of Norte Chico: Author's Interviews, Haas, Creamer, Ruiz, Mike Moseley. Haas and Creamer 2004 ("The complex of sites," 36); Haas, Creamer, and Ruiz, 2004.

Aspero: Willey and Corbett 1954 ("knolls," 254); Moseley and Willey 1973 ("excellent, if embarrassing," "temple-type," 455); Feldman 1985; 1980:246 (rejecting older dates), cited in Haas, Creamer, and Ruiz, 2004.

Caral: Shady Solis, Haas, and Creamer 2001; Shady Solis and Leyva eds. 2003; Shady Solis, pers. comm. See also, Pringle 2001; Sandweiss and Moseley 2001; Fountain 2001; Bower 2001; Ross 2002.

Dating of other Norte Chico sites: Haas, Creamer, and Ruiz 2004.

Egypt: For dates and sizes I have relied on Algaze 1993 and Spence 2000 (which dates construction on the Great Pyramid of Khufu to begin in 248575 B.C.).

Invention of government: Author's interviews, Haas, Petersen; Haas, Creamer, and Ruiz 2004.

Cotton domestication: Sauer 1993.

Cotton in Europe and the Andes: Braudel 198184 (vol. 1):32527; (vol. 2):17880 (bans, prostitutes), 31213; Murra 1964.

MFAC hypothesis: Moseley 2005, 1975b. See the critiques in Wilson 1981, Raymond 1981.

Work parties and music: Author's Interviews, Haas, Creamer; Shady Solis 2003a, 2003b.

Champ de Mars: Schama 1989:50409.

Early Staff God: Author's interviews, Creamer; Makowski, pers. comm.; Haas and Creamer, forthcoming; Spotts 2003; Makowski 2005.

Norte Chico as foundation: In the past anthropologists have sometimes tried to describe Peruvian societies in terms of lo Andino, a being whose special characteristics have uniquely defined those societies throughout time. I am arguing something different, that people who have solved problems in one way will often return to those proven methods to solve new ones.

Domestication of tobacco: Winter 2000.

Itanoni description, plans, history: Author's interviews, Ramirez Leyva.

Uniqueness of Itanoni: Small tortillerias using local maize persist in rural Mexico, although they are threatened by the industrial production of Maseca, the large, state-affiliated maize and tortilla firm. By contrast, Itanoni is a boutique operation that sells as many as eight different varieties of tortillas, each made from a separate local cultivar. The difference is akin to the difference between an Italian village cafe that sells liters of unlabeled local wine and an enoteca, a fine wine store featuring the carefully labeled production of the region.