Beyond the constraints of language, easy readers fall into a broad range of categories, including nonfiction, folklore, poetry, science fiction, mysteries, historical fiction, animal fantasies, and realistic fiction, although the latter two make up the majority of what has been published to date.

The first page or two of an easy reader is especially important because it must establish the context and stir children's interest enough to draw them into the story.

Ruth Horowitz uses simple words and short sentences to introduce characters and setting in the opening two pages of Breakout at the Bug Lab Breakout at the Bug Lab: Our mom works in a bug lab.She collects robber flies.They carry their food with their feet.She looks at dung beetles.They eat animal p.o.o.p!But the best bug in her lab is Max.Max is Mom's pet c.o.c.kroach.Max comes from an island near Africa.He loves fruit and hates bright lights.Max is as big as a bite-sized candy bar.He hisses like a snake when he is mad.

Note the word choices and sentence structure the author uses to describe an unfamiliar setting and an unusual character. She succeeds in making the text accessible by beginning with easy words and sentences that are sure to pique the interest of young children. This gives young readers the confidence they need to keep reading. Look closely at the first two or three pages of an easy reader as you evaluate it. Does it begin by using short sentences and simple concepts? Does it establish the setting and introduce the subject or characters quickly? Is it likely to make children want to turn the pages and keep reading?

Most stories in easy readers involve two or three main characters and have fast-moving plots with clear, direct action. Descriptive pa.s.sages and internal motives are kept to a minimum. Many follow the pattern established by the I Can Read series and break the story up into four to six chapters. When this is done, chapters should be episodic; in other words, the action started at the beginning of a chapter is completed-brought to some sort of resolution-at the end of the chapter. Each chapter then functions as a short story; and taken as a whole, all the chapters that make up one book have characters and setting in common.

Each of the four chapters in Minarik's Little Bear Little Bear deals with the playful interactions between a mother bear and her small son. In chapter 1, Little Bear wants to go out to play in the snow, but he keeps returning to tell his mother he is cold and needs something warm to put on. She gives him a hat, a coat, and a pair of snow pants before suggesting he remove them all and wear his own nice warm fur coat outside. In chapter 2, Little Bear prepares a special birthday soup for himself as a succession of guests arrives for his party. Each one asks him what he is cooking, giving him an opportunity to describe repeatedly the wonders of birthday soup before Mother Bear comes home with a surprise birthday cake. In both of these chapters, episodes are built on a predictable acc.u.mulation of repeated actions that pave the way for a satisfying surprise ending. The character of an inventive and slightly dependent Little Bear is firmly established through his interactions with his patient, loving mother. After the first two chapters, young readers will feel familiar enough with the characters of Little Bear and his mother so that they can easily follow the two final chapters that break away from the predictable pattern of repet.i.tion. Like the first two chapters, chapters 3 and 4 center on Little Bear's actions, which elicit calm and satisfying reactions from his mother. deals with the playful interactions between a mother bear and her small son. In chapter 1, Little Bear wants to go out to play in the snow, but he keeps returning to tell his mother he is cold and needs something warm to put on. She gives him a hat, a coat, and a pair of snow pants before suggesting he remove them all and wear his own nice warm fur coat outside. In chapter 2, Little Bear prepares a special birthday soup for himself as a succession of guests arrives for his party. Each one asks him what he is cooking, giving him an opportunity to describe repeatedly the wonders of birthday soup before Mother Bear comes home with a surprise birthday cake. In both of these chapters, episodes are built on a predictable acc.u.mulation of repeated actions that pave the way for a satisfying surprise ending. The character of an inventive and slightly dependent Little Bear is firmly established through his interactions with his patient, loving mother. After the first two chapters, young readers will feel familiar enough with the characters of Little Bear and his mother so that they can easily follow the two final chapters that break away from the predictable pattern of repet.i.tion. Like the first two chapters, chapters 3 and 4 center on Little Bear's actions, which elicit calm and satisfying reactions from his mother.

To evaluate the storyline in an easy reader, look at each double-page spread and notice what happens. There should be some action on every page. Are action verbs used to move the plot along? Are characters developed through interaction? Does the author use repeated actions in a creative way? Are surprises balanced with predictable elements?

ILl.u.s.tRATIONS.

Pictures in easy readers appear on every double-page spread, and they generally vary in size from page to page. In addition to ill.u.s.trating the story, they can give essential clues to help out with words or concepts that young readers may find difficult. When Cynthia Rylant tells us in Henry and Mudge: The First Book Henry and Mudge: The First Book that the puppy Mudge grew out of seven collars in a row, artist Sucie Stevenson ill.u.s.trates the seven collars and shows them in succession. This single ill.u.s.tration gives clues about the word "collar" and the concepts "grew out of" and "in a row." It also suggests just how big the tiny puppy grew to be so that readers are prepared for a surprise when they see and read about the huge dog Mudge on the following page. that the puppy Mudge grew out of seven collars in a row, artist Sucie Stevenson ill.u.s.trates the seven collars and shows them in succession. This single ill.u.s.tration gives clues about the word "collar" and the concepts "grew out of" and "in a row." It also suggests just how big the tiny puppy grew to be so that readers are prepared for a surprise when they see and read about the huge dog Mudge on the following page.

DESIGN.

Because easy readers must meet the physical as well as intellectual needs of children who are learning to read, it is especially important to pay attention to design factors such as size of typeface, line length, s.p.a.ce between words, s.p.a.ce between lines, number of lines per page, amount of white s.p.a.ce per page, and placement of ill.u.s.trations.

SIZE OF T TYPEFACE.

Typography has its own system of measurement based on points points. A point is a little less than 1/72 of an inch. Most books for adults are set in typeface that measures 10 or 12 points in height. The standard size typeface for beginning readers is 18 points.

10 points12 points18 points LINE L LENGTH.

By line length we mean the number of words per line. A line may be a complete sentence, or it may be a phrase. Beginning readers should have lines between two and ten words in length. The longer the line, the more difficult it is for children to read. When you look at lines, you should also pay attention to where new sentences begin. New sentences beginning at the end of a line are harder for children to read than those that start at the beginning of a line. Line breaks usually come at a natural place to pause, and the right margins are not justified.

s.p.a.cE B BETWEEN W WORDS.

For inexperienced readers the s.p.a.ce between words is just as important as the period at the end of the sentence is for experienced readers. They "read" the s.p.a.ce as an indication of where one word ends and the next word begins. s.p.a.ces between words should be wide and distinct.

s.p.a.cE B BETWEEN L L INES INES.

There should be plenty of s.p.a.ce between lines (leading, so called because old typesetting technology used strips of lead between the lines of type) in beginning readers so that a child can easily keep his or her place in a line without wandering down into the next line. The more s.p.a.ce between lines, the easier the text is to read. Most often, leading is equal to the type size-that is, if the type size is 18 point, there are 18 points of s.p.a.ce between lines.

NUMBER OF L L INES PER INES PER P PAGE.

Due to ill.u.s.trations, this will vary from page to page but in easy readers, the number of lines per page should not exceed fifteen.

A MOUNT OF MOUNT OF W WHITE S s.p.a.cE PER P PAGE.

Children work hard to decode the text in easy readers, and they need to rest their eyes frequently. A lot of white s.p.a.ce around words and pictures gives their eyes a place to rest.

PLACEMENT OF I ILl.u.s.tRATIONS.

In easy readers ill.u.s.trations appear on every double-page spread. They may give essential picture clues to help the child, and they may provide little breaks for the eyes. They should not overwhelm the reader by covering up every bit of white s.p.a.ce, nor should they confuse the reader by taking over the text's territory. They are there to complement the text, not compete with it.

LEVELS.

Easy readers fall roughly into three levels based on how easy or difficult they are for children to read. In evaluating an easy reader, it is very important for the critic to determine the level of the book by looking at elements of design and content. Although there are no hard-and-fast rules-and even formal readability scales such as Frye and s.p.a.che are not always reliable-we can make a general overall a.s.sessment of a book by taking concrete factors such as word usage, line length, sentence structure, and ill.u.s.trations into consideration.

LEVEL O ONE.

The very easiest of the easy readers are written at a first-grade level. The text is set in 17-to 20-point type; and there are, on average, five words per line. The sentences average five to seven words, and the words that are used are largely sight vocabulary or one-syllable words of five letters or fewer. There are generally two to seven lines per page, with as much as two thirds of each page used for ill.u.s.trations and white s.p.a.ce. The ill.u.s.trations provide plenty of picture clues.

Mo Willems's popular Elephant & Piggie series falls into this category. All the text in these books appears in color-coded dialogue bubbles as the story is built with a conversation between the two characters and the accompanying ill.u.s.trations that offer strong picture clues. In There Is a Bird on Your Head There Is a Bird on Your Head, for example, Piggie and readers can see exactly what is going on as two birds build a nest and lay eggs on top of Elephant's head. Elephant, however, must rely on Piggie to tell him what is happening: "Is there abird on myhead now?""No.Now there are twobirds on your head.""What are two birdsdoing on my head?""They are in love!""The birds on myhead are in love?""They arelove birds!""Love birds!How do youknow they arelove birds?""They aremakinga nest!"

Like Willems, David Milgrim excels at writing humorous books at this level, such as See Pip Point See Pip Point, one in a series about two friends, a robot and a mouse. Milgrim brilliantly uses sight vocabulary to parody basal readers, a technique that works because of the strong context provided through his ill.u.s.trations. For example, a picture showing Pip the mouse being lifted high off the ground after he's been handed a helium balloon reads: See Pip go up.See Pip go way up.See Pip go up, up,and away.

LEVEL T TWO.

Written at a second-grade level, easy readers in the middle range begin to use slightly more complex sentences, alternating them with short simple ones. The number of sight words has greatly expanded, and children can now handle occasional unfamiliar multisyllabic words that are part of their natural oral speech. No more than five words per line continues to be the ideal length, even though the sentences themselves can be longer. The number of lines per page varies from four to fifteen, and the text is fairly evenly balanced with ill.u.s.trations or white s.p.a.ce.

Erica Silverman's Cowgirl Kate and Cocoa series provides a good example of books at this level. They deal with the humorous friendship between a cowgirl and her talking horse, Cocoa. Here's a typical exchange between them from the first volume in the series, Cowgirl Kate and Cocoa Cowgirl Kate and Cocoa: She went to the tallest treeand started to climb.Up she went,higherand higherand higher.Cocoa galloped over."Come down, please!" he cried."I do not want you to fall.""Don't worry," said Cowgirl Kate."I am a good climber.""And I am a good worrier," said Cocoa."Please come down!"

LEVEL T THREE.

The most challenging of the easy readers are written at a level that is typical of children who are beginning third grade. Due to the use of more difficult words, an adult reading the text may not even be aware that the book is written with a controlled vocabulary. There is a greater frequency of compound and complex sentences, resulting in language that begins to sound more natural. Still, the line lengths are short, fewer than eight words, and the number of lines per page does not exceed fifteen. The text may cover up to three quarters of the page, although due to the large type and plenty of s.p.a.ce between lines, there is a lot of white s.p.a.ce on each page. Ill.u.s.trations may even appear only on alternating pages, and they begin to function more as decorations.

Note the characteristics of a level three reader in this pa.s.sage from Mercy Watson Goes for a Ride Mercy Watson Goes for a Ride, by Kate DiCamillo: Officer Tomilello had to go very fastto catch up with the convertible.The officer had to speed."Is that vehicle swerving?" OfficerTomilello asked himself."It is," he answered himself. "It ismost definitely swerving.""Is the driver of that vehicle breakingthe law?" Officer Tomilello asked."Without a doubt," he answered,"the law is being broken. It is time totake action."Officer Tomilello pulled upalongside the car. He shouted intohis bullhorn: "PULL OVER!"

Children who are comfortably reading level three texts are probably ready to make the jump to the next highest level: the transitional book. This stage in a child's reading life is usually brief, but it is very important. It is during this stage that the child gains confidence and discovers that reading is personally important and pleasurable.

TRANSITIONAL BOOKS.

As noted earlier, there has not been the careful attention given to the design of transitional books as there has to easy readers. Ann Cameron's The Stories Julian Tells The Stories Julian Tells sets a standard for excellence in design that few have matched (or even striven for). Like easy readers, it has a large typeface and the number of lines per page never exceeds fifteen. The number of words per line, however, has been increased to an average of eight to twelve. Sentences are no longer broken down into shorter lines, and right-hand margins are now justified. There is plenty of white s.p.a.ce on every page, with generous margins at the top, bottom, and sides; and there is still a full line of leading between every line of type. The book includes frequent full-page black-and-white ill.u.s.trations, but there may be two or three double-page spreads in a row with no ill.u.s.trations at all. The six chapters are short and episodic, varying in length from seven to seventeen pages. It is the length of the chapters, the justified right margins, and the smaller ratio of text to ill.u.s.trations that give sets a standard for excellence in design that few have matched (or even striven for). Like easy readers, it has a large typeface and the number of lines per page never exceeds fifteen. The number of words per line, however, has been increased to an average of eight to twelve. Sentences are no longer broken down into shorter lines, and right-hand margins are now justified. There is plenty of white s.p.a.ce on every page, with generous margins at the top, bottom, and sides; and there is still a full line of leading between every line of type. The book includes frequent full-page black-and-white ill.u.s.trations, but there may be two or three double-page spreads in a row with no ill.u.s.trations at all. The six chapters are short and episodic, varying in length from seven to seventeen pages. It is the length of the chapters, the justified right margins, and the smaller ratio of text to ill.u.s.trations that give The Stories Julian Tells The Stories Julian Tells the look of a chapter book, while design elements-such as line length, type size, and white s.p.a.ce-make it accessible to inexperienced readers. the look of a chapter book, while design elements-such as line length, type size, and white s.p.a.ce-make it accessible to inexperienced readers.

Compare the first to the third book in the Julian series, Julian's Glorious Summer Julian's Glorious Summer. The latter was designed to conform to the publisher's then-new transitional series, Stepping Stone. The third Julian book uses a much smaller typeface and has up to twenty-five lines per page. This design is much more typical of what we see in most publishers' series of transitional books.

There are several other characteristics these books have in common that make them more accessible to newly independent readers.

A simple vocabulary without too many surprising descriptors or multisyllabic words. Children at this stage of reading are beginning to read for meaning, so it is important that the words they are reading mean something to them. What words has the author used? Are they common, everyday words a seven-or eight-year-old is likely to know? If the meaning of a word is likely to be unfamiliar, has the author provided a context that will give clues to the reader? Children at this stage of reading are beginning to read for meaning, so it is important that the words they are reading mean something to them. What words has the author used? Are they common, everyday words a seven-or eight-year-old is likely to know? If the meaning of a word is likely to be unfamiliar, has the author provided a context that will give clues to the reader?

Ann Cameron included a chapter about a fig tree in The Stories Julian Tells The Stories Julian Tells. While transitional readers would not have any trouble reading the word "fig," Cameron must have been aware that there would be some children who had never seen or eaten a fig. Notice how skillfully she provides a context for those children so that they will not be excluded: In the summer I like to lie in the gra.s.s and look at clouds and eat figs. Figs are soft and purple and delicious. Their juice runs all over my face, and I eat them till I'm so full I can't eat anymore.

Sentences that are relatively short, direct, and uncomplicated. Pay close attention to sentence length. Do long sentences alternate with short ones? How are longer sentences constructed? Compound sentences are easier to read, and complex sentences with dependent clauses are more difficult. Do you see more than a few commas per page? If so, that may be an indication that more complicated sentences are being used, as commas often set off dependent clauses. Pay close attention to sentence length. Do long sentences alternate with short ones? How are longer sentences constructed? Compound sentences are easier to read, and complex sentences with dependent clauses are more difficult. Do you see more than a few commas per page? If so, that may be an indication that more complicated sentences are being used, as commas often set off dependent clauses.

Compare the following pa.s.sages. The first is from Lenore Look's Ruby Lu, Brave and True Ruby Lu, Brave and True and the second from Anne Fine's and the second from Anne Fine's The Jamie and Angus Stories The Jamie and Angus Stories: Tiger was Ruby's best friend. He lived two blocks away, but it felt like he lived next door. He was faster than e-mail. "Don't break the speed limit!" his mother always called after him. He was also fast at making friends. With just the right smile, he was always saying hi and having a chat. Ruby didn't make friends so quickly. She liked her old friends best.Jamie sighed. Angus was looking at him most forlornly. He'd had a boring time alone at home, and now, instead of being cuddled and talked to and offered his very own SpaghettiO to balance on his nose, he was going to have to carry on standing by the plate rack, all alone, watching Jamie struggle through some fancy supper with olives.

Even though the pa.s.sage from The Jamie and Angus Stories The Jamie and Angus Stories uses relatively simple vocabulary, the sentence structure is quite complex and would require the skills of a more experienced reader. Because this sort of complexity is common in the book, we would not cla.s.sify it as a book for transitional readers, even though it has many of the characteristics we look for: large, clear typeface; plenty of white s.p.a.ce; occasional ill.u.s.trations; and short, episodic chapters. uses relatively simple vocabulary, the sentence structure is quite complex and would require the skills of a more experienced reader. Because this sort of complexity is common in the book, we would not cla.s.sify it as a book for transitional readers, even though it has many of the characteristics we look for: large, clear typeface; plenty of white s.p.a.ce; occasional ill.u.s.trations; and short, episodic chapters.

Brief episodes, chapters, or intervals that stand out to the reader. The average length of a chapter in a transitional book is just six to eight pages. Each chapter typically follows the actions of one, two, or three characters in one place at one time. All the chapters in Mich.e.l.le Edwards's The average length of a chapter in a transitional book is just six to eight pages. Each chapter typically follows the actions of one, two, or three characters in one place at one time. All the chapters in Mich.e.l.le Edwards's Pa Lia's First Day Pa Lia's First Day, for example, take place during a single day at school and introduce the cla.s.smates who are main characters in the Jackson Friends series. Runaway Radish Runaway Radish, by Jessie Haas, takes place over a long period of time as it follows the life of a horse and its owners, but each chapter is limited to one main episode that moves the plot along. These episodes can be described in short sentences, for example: Chapter 1: We meet Radish and his first owner, Judy.Chapter 2: We meet Radish's second owner, Nina.Chapter 3: Radish tries to follow Nina when she takes another horse out for a ride, and he gets lost.Chapter 4: Together Nina and Judy find Radish.Chapter 5: Radish is given to a riding camp where, years later, Judy's daughter learns to ride.

Look at each chapter to see exactly what happens. Can it be easily summed up in a few words? If not, it will probably be too difficult for transitional readers.

Inexperienced readers often have a great deal of trouble grasping jumps in time and changes in setting. These are two very important techniques in fiction writing, and children need to gain familiarity with them in order to become competent readers of fiction. Because chapters are short in transitional books, changes in time and setting generally occur between rather than within chapters. These changes will not be obvious to young readers unless they are given clear, direct descriptions. Phrases such as "The next day..." and "When Sam got to the park..." are essential.

In Berta: A Remarkable Dog Berta: A Remarkable Dog, Celia Barker Lottridge always lets her readers know exactly where and when the action takes place by building it into the opening sentence of each chapter. For example: Chapter 1: "Berta lived in the small town of Middle Westfield in a yellow house with a barn behind it." "Berta lived in the small town of Middle Westfield in a yellow house with a barn behind it."Chapter 2: "It was March, a bothersome month in Middle Westfield." "It was March, a bothersome month in Middle Westfield."Chapter 3: "The chicks were still living in the storeroom when Mr. Miller burst through the back door early the next Sat.u.r.day morning with a wide grin on his face." "The chicks were still living in the storeroom when Mr. Miller burst through the back door early the next Sat.u.r.day morning with a wide grin on his face."Chapter 4: "Marjory was walking slowly home from school." "Marjory was walking slowly home from school."Chapter 5: "By the next Sat.u.r.day every hint of spring was gone." "By the next Sat.u.r.day every hint of spring was gone."

Look for changes in time and setting. Where and how often do they occur? Does the author use helpful descriptive phrases to let readers know exactly where and when the action takes place?

Content compelling enough to hold a child's interest but not so complicated that it's hard to follow. Like easy readers, transitional books generally have two or three main characters and brisk plots with a lot of action. Contemporary stories about friends and family work especially well, because the types of characters, situations, and conflicts they offer are familiar and easily understood by newly independent readers. More whimsical elements can be introduced if they are firmly rooted in a reality that children will easily absorb. Marion Dane Bauer's Like easy readers, transitional books generally have two or three main characters and brisk plots with a lot of action. Contemporary stories about friends and family work especially well, because the types of characters, situations, and conflicts they offer are familiar and easily understood by newly independent readers. More whimsical elements can be introduced if they are firmly rooted in a reality that children will easily absorb. Marion Dane Bauer's The Blue Ghost The Blue Ghost introduces supernatural elements, but they are firmly grounded in the familiar reality of a family summer cottage. introduces supernatural elements, but they are firmly grounded in the familiar reality of a family summer cottage.

Children who are going through this stage in their lives as readers need to build self-confidence as they make the leap from easy readers to chapter books. Transitional books serve as a bridge for them. It is a bridge that some children will cross very quickly; others will have to linger for a while. The best transitional books will suggest that the trip across is worth it and that great things await them on the other side.

CHAPTER 7.

Fiction.

Children's fiction offers a rich diversity of style, content, and form to satisfy a variety of tastes, interests, and abilities of young readers. From the witty portrayals of ordinary child life in Beverly Cleary's Ramona books to Gary Paulsen's gripping stories of wilderness survival to the complexities of character revealed in Virginia Hamilton's multilayered novels, there are books to amuse, stimulate, and captivate many types of readers.

With such a wide range of fiction, how do we choose the best? What characterizes an outstanding novel for children? Are there literary standards that we can apply to all works of fiction? How can we tell what will appeal to children at different age levels and abilities? Can a fourth grader read the same books as a seventh grader? Do boys and girls like the same kinds of books? How important is popularity and child appeal? Why don't they give the Newbery Medal to popular books? What's the problem with formula series books, anyway? If kids are reading them, isn't that the most important thing?

These are all questions commonly asked by people who are thinking about children's fiction. All are valid and important questions for us to consider. Many of them have their roots in the conflicting points of view that led to the creation of contemporary children's fiction in the first place.

Prior to the 1920s, most of children's fiction consisted of popular series books, such as Tom Swift, the Motor Girls, the Bobbsey Twins, and dozens of other series written according to a prescribed formula. There were no separate children's divisions in publishing houses at the time, and even children's departments in public libraries were a rarity.

In the early part of the twentieth century libraries began to establish specialized departments for children by hiring women who had been trained in a newly developing field devoted to children's services. But when these librarians looked for books to add to their library's collections, they found that there was little that met their critical standards. In 1920 Anne Carroll Moore, the influential head of New York Public Library's Office of Work with Children, lamented: "We are tired of subst.i.tutes for realities in writing for children. The trail...[is] strewn with patronage and propaganda, moralizing self-sufficiency and sham efficiency, mock heroics and cheap optimism-above all, with the commonplace in theme, treatment, and language."

Of course, there were books such as The Adventures of Tom Sawyer The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, Little Women, Little Women, and and Hans Brinker; or, The Silver Skates Hans Brinker; or, The Silver Skates, but these t.i.tles were the exception, not the rule. Thanks to the combined efforts of children's librarians, publishers, and booksellers, the rules were about to change.

In the United States just after the end of World War I, great changes were in the air. Within a five year period (1919 to 1924) there was a remarkable series of events that would have a long-lasting impact: Children's divisions were set up in publishing houses; The Horn Book The Horn Book magazine was founded; Children's Book Week was established; and perhaps, most important, the Newbery Medal was created to encourage writers and publishers to produce high-quality books for children. magazine was founded; Children's Book Week was established; and perhaps, most important, the Newbery Medal was created to encourage writers and publishers to produce high-quality books for children.

Of course, this radical change in children's books was not without its opponents. The proponents and producers of formula series books launched a verbal attack on children's librarians, claiming that, since they were mere women (and spinsters, at that), they had no right to judge what was fit reading for red-blooded American boys. Librarians, in alliance with the Boy Scouts of America, countered by emphasizing "good books for boys" in their early recommendations, thus advancing the notion of gender-specific reading tastes.

The first several winners of the Newbery Medal are a case in point. They are for the most part t.i.tles that would be touted as books for boys. Speaking about the work of 1924 Newbery Medalist Charles Boardman Hawes (The Dark Frigate) shortly after the announcement had been made, librarian Louise P. Latimer stated: "Let us nail them to our mast and say to those who question or discredit our judgment, these are examples of good writing for boys. Match them with hack writing if you can."

Children's librarians quickly established themselves as the major influence in setting the literary standards for children's fiction. Formula series fiction faded into the background, and although it has never completely died out, it has been greatly marginalized in school and public libraries.

LITERARY GENRES.

Over the past several decades a significant body of outstanding fiction written especially for children has developed. It can be categorized by genres and subgenres, and it's important for a critic to identify the genre of any book under consideration.

REALISM.

Realism is most easily defined as stories that could happen in the real world. This is an extremely popular form of children's fiction with both authors and readers. Realism itself can be divided into the following subcategories.

Contemporary realistic fiction: Stories set in the here and now. They can deal with serious issues, such as Kevin Henkes's evocative Bird Lake Moon Bird Lake Moon, in which two boys are dealing with loss in their families, or they can be funny stories like Megan McDonald's Judy Moody series.

Historical fiction: Stories set in the past. Setting is generally integral. The author must bring unfamiliar events and everyday experiences to life and offer enough historical context for child readers so that they understand the time period. The author must also remain true to the historical era about which he or she is writing. Karen Cushman is a master at writing compelling books set in the past, such as The Midwife's Apprentice The Midwife's Apprentice, set in the Middle Ages, and The Loud Silence of Francine Green The Loud Silence of Francine Green, set just after World War II.

School stories: For obvious reasons, this subgenre is unique to children's and young adult literature. Traditionally, school stories were set in boarding schools, and the setting served as a microcosm for society at large; but today we see many children's novels set in public school cla.s.srooms, where the teacher, cla.s.smates, and occasionally the princ.i.p.al are the main characters. In The Fabled Fourth Graders of Aesop Elementary School The Fabled Fourth Graders of Aesop Elementary School, Candace Fleming pits a rambunctious group of nine-year-olds against a resourceful teacher. A cla.s.sroom of fifth graders take a vow of silence in Andrew Clements's No Talking No Talking, with hilarious results.

Sports stories: Stories that feature a child or sometimes an entire team playing a specific sport. The best books in this genre have plenty of descriptive pa.s.sages that make play-by-play action an integral part of the plot. Matt Christopher set the standard for children's sports fiction, and his books continue to be favorites with young sports enthusiasts. Many sports novels follow the experiences of one player or team, perfecting skills to prepare for the big game, but there are exceptions to this formula. The entire story of Six Innings: A Game in the Life Six Innings: A Game in the Life, by James Preller, takes place during a Little League championship game, told from the different points of view of the players.

Survival stories: Stories that tell of a character's struggle to survive, either physically or emotionally. In most survival stories, characters must make life-or-death decisions that determine their fate. Run, Boy, Run Run, Boy, Run, by Uri Orlev, is a Holocaust survival story in which an eight-year-old boy escapes from the Warsaw Ghetto and must survive on his own. In Helen Frost's Diamond Willow Diamond Willow, a twelve-year-old girl must survive on her own when she is trapped in a snowstorm during what should have been a two-hour dogsled ride. These novels show both the physical and emotional survival of the main characters.

FANTASY AND SCIENCE FICTION.

While fantasy and science fiction are sometimes cla.s.sed together, they are each distinctive subgenres in their own right. What they have in common and what distinguishes them from realistic fiction is that they do not take place in the real world as we know it.

Fantasy: Stories that take place in an imaginary world created by the author. The author creates the rules by which the world operates and must remain consistent to them. He or she must also make the world believable enough that readers will be able to suspend disbelief when they enter it. Fantasy is further subdivided into high fantasy high fantasy and and low fantasy low fantasy. High fantasy is set in a completely imaginary world. A good example is Princess Academy Princess Academy, by Shannon Hale, set in an imaginary kingdom where villagers are able to communicate telepathically. Low fantasy is set in the real world but introduces magical elements. Ingrid Law's Savvy Savvy is set in the contemporary United States but features a family whose members have a magical power that is revealed on their thirteenth birthdays. Low fantasies often set up parallel imaginary worlds that coexist with our real world. Examples are the Gregor series, by Suzanne Collins; the Percy Jackson and the Olympians series, by Rick Riordan; and J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series. is set in the contemporary United States but features a family whose members have a magical power that is revealed on their thirteenth birthdays. Low fantasies often set up parallel imaginary worlds that coexist with our real world. Examples are the Gregor series, by Suzanne Collins; the Percy Jackson and the Olympians series, by Rick Riordan; and J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series. Animal fantasies Animal fantasies are another popular subcategory for children. These range from stories such as Brian Jacques's Redwall series, in which mice and other animals stand in for human characters, to stories like are another popular subcategory for children. These range from stories such as Brian Jacques's Redwall series, in which mice and other animals stand in for human characters, to stories like Masterpiece Masterpiece, by Elise Broach, in which humans interact with talking animals-in this case, beetles.

Science fiction: Sometimes called speculative fiction speculative fiction, these are stories set in an imaginary world that operates by the laws of science, rather than by magic. Children's science fiction often deals with ethical issues by taking some aspect of contemporary life and projecting it into a future time. The Hunger Games The Hunger Games, by Suzanne Collins, for example, depicts a bleak future in which a single reality television show determines the fate of entire populations represented by the contestants. The ethics of cloning, and nature versus nurture, are both central to the theme of Nancy Farmer's The House of the Scorpion The House of the Scorpion, when a boy learns he is the clone of an evil 142-year-old dictator.

OTHER GENRES IN CHILDREN'S FICTION Horror: Stories that set out to scare the reader. This is an especially popular genre with many children, something that many adults find puzzling. But the attraction of most horror for children is that they can identify with the central theme, which is powerlessness, and find comfort in seeing a child facing his fears and overcoming more powerful forces, such as zombies, vampires, and psycho killers. Neil Gaiman's Coraline Coraline is a good example of a deliciously scary novel in which a young girl outwits evil predators who look exactly like her parents, except for their b.u.t.ton eyes. is a good example of a deliciously scary novel in which a young girl outwits evil predators who look exactly like her parents, except for their b.u.t.ton eyes.

Mystery: Stories in which some sort of mystery or puzzle is introduced early on that gets children involved in trying to figure out what has happened. Mysteries include detective stories, suspense novels, and tales of the supernatural; and they are marked by suspense and fast-paced action. There are excellent children's mystery series with child detectives, such as the Echo Falls series, by Peter Abrahams, and the Enola Holmes series, by Nancy Springer. In Rebecca Stead's When You Reach Me When You Reach Me, mysterious notes left for the main character by an unknown person provide both the puzzle and the clues needed to solve it.

ILl.u.s.tRATED NOVELS.

In the first half of the twentieth century, most children's novels were accompanied by ill.u.s.trations, either in black and white or as full-color plates tipped in between pages of text. In the late 1950s, ill.u.s.trations in chapter books fell out of favor, and within ten years it was a rarity to see them in a children's novel. But at the beginning of the twenty-first century, they have been making a comeback and are once again becoming common, even in books for teenagers.

Most ill.u.s.trated children's novels use art as decoration, either as chapter headings as we see in Louise Erdrich's The Birchbark House, The Birchbark House, or as occasional full-page ill.u.s.trations, such as those created by Bagram Ibatoulline for Kate DiCamillo's or as occasional full-page ill.u.s.trations, such as those created by Bagram Ibatoulline for Kate DiCamillo's The Miraculous Journey of Edward Tulane The Miraculous Journey of Edward Tulane. In some cases, the ill.u.s.trations are an integral part of the book. A notable example is Brian Selznick's The Invention of Hugo Cabret The Invention of Hugo Cabret, a novel that opens with 21 wordless ill.u.s.trated double-page spreads and includes 284 pages of ill.u.s.trations throughout its 533 pages. So integral are the ill.u.s.trations to the story, in fact, the book won the 2008 Caldecott Medal for distinguished ill.u.s.tration, marking the first time a novel had been recognized in this way.

Another popular form of ill.u.s.trated children's fiction is the graphic novel graphic novel that uses sequential art and words in accordance with comic-book conventions to tell a story. While graphic novels are especially popular with teenagers, many publishers are beginning to develop graphic novel lines for children, as well. Jennifer and Matthew Holm's superb Babymouse series is perfect for elementary-school-aged children, as is Kean Soo's that uses sequential art and words in accordance with comic-book conventions to tell a story. While graphic novels are especially popular with teenagers, many publishers are beginning to develop graphic novel lines for children, as well. Jennifer and Matthew Holm's superb Babymouse series is perfect for elementary-school-aged children, as is Kean Soo's Jellaby Jellaby.

When evaluating the ill.u.s.trations in children's fiction, you can consider some of the same questions you would ask yourself about picture book ill.u.s.trations. In addition, you should consider them in the context of the novel itself. How well do the ill.u.s.trations match the tone of the book? Are they age appropriate and likely to appeal to child readers, or do they make the book look babyish? Will they make the book more accessible to reluctant readers? Do they detract from or contradict the text? Are they integral to the story, and, if so, how do they enhance it?

Many children develop an early preference for a particular genre, and read almost exclusively in that genre when they read for pleasure, right up into adulthood. One of the reasons for the broad popularity of the Harry Potter series, in fact, is that it crosses into just about every literary genre in children's literature and thus appeals to a very broad range of readers.

Although each category of children's fiction has its own special qualities, and some-most notably fantasy and science fiction-have their own rules and standards for excellence, there are certain elements they all have in common. When we evaluate any type of children's fiction, we can look closely at plot, characterization, point of view, setting, style, and theme.

PLOT.

The basis of all fiction is the plot plot, that is, a series of events that tell the story, actions that are linked by cause and effect, so that the pieces of the story are all tied together by a narrative. Unlike real life, everything that happens in a story has a recognizable purpose. If, for example, a notebook is left on the school bus in the first chapter, we know that something is going to happen as a result; otherwise, the author wouldn't have mentioned it.

NARRATIVE STRUCTURE.

Narrative order refers to the sequence in which the events take place. Most children's novels follow a direct linear pattern, with events occurring in refers to the sequence in which the events take place. Most children's novels follow a direct linear pattern, with events occurring in chronological order chronological order. They may take place over a period of just a few days, a month, or years. The Birchbark House The Birchbark House provides a good example of a straightforward, progressive plot. The story follows young Omakayas over the course of a year, and readers can see how she and her family adapted to seasonal changes in their environment, contrasted with the change brought on by a stranger entering their community. provides a good example of a straightforward, progressive plot. The story follows young Omakayas over the course of a year, and readers can see how she and her family adapted to seasonal changes in their environment, contrasted with the change brought on by a stranger entering their community.

A slightly more complex form of narrative order based on chronology is one that tells the story from the point of view of more than one character. Kevin Henkes uses this device effectively in Bird Lake Moon Bird Lake Moon, which takes place over the course of a single summer. Henkes shows the developing friendship between Mitch and Spencer, and builds tension by alternating the points of view so that readers know both boys are keeping secrets from each other. Since it is a little more difficult for children to follow this kind of order, authors can make it easier, as Henkes did, by shifting the viewpoint between, rather than within, chapters and by using the characters' names as chapter headings so that young readers know from the outset which character is speaking.